Harleain MS 279 (ab. 1430) - xlviij. Tayloures & Cxiiij. Tayleȝ - Rice Porridge with Currants & Dates or Figs, Dates and Raisins + Bonus Recipes for Poudre Douce (Sweet Powder)

Tayleȝ with Spiced Apples and Walnuts

I was very eager to try out this recipe from Two fifteenth-century cookery-books : Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430), & Harl. MS. 4016 (ab. 1450), with extracts from Ashmole MS. 1439, Laud MS. 553, & Douce MS. 55 by Thomas Austin" for Tayloures, which is another pottage based on the almond milk and rice flour base.  Previously published interpretations which contain this base include; Cxxxvj. A potage of Roysons (Rice Porridge with Apples and Raisins), .Ixxxv. Gaylede (Rice Porridge with Figs & Honey), .Cxxv. Vyolette - Violet. and .lxviij. Bruet of Almaynne in lente (Rice Porridge with Dates). 

The taste testers and I had an interesting conversation about where in a feast you would find dishes like these served.  The consensus is that for the modern day pallet you serve them at breakfast--barring that, they should most likely be served either as a sweet side dish as part of a course, or at the end of the meal for a warm pudding. I believe in period these dishes would have been served in first course for dietetic reasons.  

I have combined two similar sets of instructions into this post which was first published in 2017.  The second dish, Tayley (Taylez) differs from the first only in the fruits used, and the addition of vinegar and honey added to the dish.  I chose to make the sauce seperately, adding the dates and the raisins to it.  You will note that the sauce appears very dark.  I was gifted autumn honey from a friend, and this particular honey is very dark and flavorful. 

These two dishes do not disappoint. They differ differs from the other pottages with the use of the wine, the fruits used and the spicing. Some things to note; the interchange of bread with rice as a thickener in the first recipe, and the usage of honey versus sugar in the second.  This led to a discussion on the preogative of the cook; Is it ok to follow the example of these recipes and add additional spices or exchange out the thickeners used when reconstructing recipes in period?  We concluded that what we were using today was a set of instructions most likely written by someone watching the cook prepare the food, and listening to what the cook said, but who may have only seen it prepared the one time.  Therefore, it is likely that just as modern day cooks will substitute one item for another, the medieval cook most likely did the same. In a situation where using a wheat based thickener is not idea, the use of eggs or rice would be appropriate.  Likewise for the use of seasoning or other items.  We also noted that in this particular manuscript several sets of instructions (like these two) may differ by one or two items, for example the addition of wine, the protein used, or  in this case the fruit and spicing differ. 

The last bit of discussion we had, while finishing off our "brunch" was the feasibility of creating dishes like this for camping events, specifically for a camp breakfast. It was noted that with the exception of almond milk, all of the ingredients are dried and easily portable.  It would be quite feasible to make almond milk on site, eliminating the need to keep a dairy product that would easily spoil around.  Further, it was noted that the cereal itself continued to thicken as it cooled.  Had there been *any* left over, I would have liked to have know if it would be possible to cool it, slice it and fry it up similar to mush.  With the ingredients used, refridgeration would not be a requirement right away.  

What would you do with the almond meal once the milk was made? With a can of pie filling, or fresh fruit of your choice, you could make a quick crumbly topping for a camp pie.  Simply mix 1/4 cup of the (used) almond flour with 1 cup dry oats, a teaspoon or more of your spices, up to a1/4 cup honey and add the juice of half an orange. Yum! Breakfast and desert done with creative use of portable items that do not require a cooler ;-)

xlviij. Tayloures. — Take a gode mylke of Almaundys y-draw with Wyne an Water, an caste hym in-to a potte, and caste gret Roysouns of corauns, Also mencyd Datys, Clowes, Maces, Pouder Pepir, Canel, Safroun, & a gode dele Salt, & let boyle a whyle; þan take it and ly*. [Lye; allay.] it wyth Flowre of Rys, or ellys with Brede y-gratyd, & caste þer-to Sugre, & serue forth lyke Mortrewys, & caste pouder of Gyngere a-boue y-now.

48. Taylours - Take good milk of almonds drawn with wine and water, and caste them in a pot, and caste great raisins of corauns (currents). Also minced dates, cloves, maces, powder pepper, cinnamon, saffron and a good deal of salt, and let boil awhile; Than take it and lie it with flour of rice, or else with bread grated and caste there-to sugar, and serve forth like mortrews, and cast powder of ginger above enough.

Interpreted Recipe

3/4 cup almond milk
1/4 cup wine (I used red wine)
1 tbsp currants (or raisins)
2 dates chopped as small as currants (or raisins)
2 cloves
1/8 tsp. each mace, pepper, cinnamon (or to taste)
pinch of saffron
salt to taste
2-3 tbsp. rice flour or bread crumbs
1 tbsp or to taste sugar (or to taste)
Pinch of ginger

I used commercially prepared almond milk and added white wine to it because I wanted to keep the pottage as white as possible.  I much prefer the taste of homemade almond milk to the commercially prepared almond, and a easy recipe using almond flour can be found here: Quick Homemade Almond Milk. I heated the almond milk with the currants and the raisins and added the spices, a pinch of saffron and sugar to it.  Once it had obtained the color I wanted, I added the rice flour and stirred till it was thick.  Before serving I sprinkled the dish with a pinch of ginger and a pinch of currants.

.Cxiiij. Tayleȝ.—Take a chargeaunt Mylke of Almaundys, an draw with wyne caste in to þe potte [deleted in MS]; take Fygys & Roysonys a gode porcyon, to make it chargeaunt, waysshe hem clene, & caste hem on a morter, grynd hem as small as þou myȝt, temper hem vppe with þin*. [Thine. ] Mylke, draw hem þorw a straynoure, also chargeauntly as þou myȝth; caste it in a clene potte, do it to þe fyre; take Datys y-taylid a-long, & do þer-to; take Flowre of Rys, & draw it þorw a straynoure, and caste þer-to, & lat it boyle tylle it be chargeaunt; sette it on þe fyre; take pouder Gyngere & Canelle, Galyngale; temper with Vynegre, & caste þer-to Sugre, or hony; caste þer-to, sesyn it vppe with Salt, & serue forth.

114. Tayles - Take thick milk of almonds, and draw with wine, caste in to the pot; take figs & raisins a good portion, to make it thick, wash them clean and caste them on a morter, grind them as small as you might, temper them up with your milk, draw them through a strainer, also thick as you might; cast it in a clean pot, do it to the fire; take dates, sliced long, and do there-to; take flour of rice, and draw it through a strainer, and caste there-to, and let it boil till it be thick; set it on the fire; take powder ginger and cinnamon, galingale; temper with vinegar, and caste there-to sugar or honey; cast there-to, season it up with salt, and serve forth. 

Interpreted Recipe

3/4 cup almond milk
1/4 cup wine 
2 figs

1 tbsp raisins
2 dates sliced long ways

2-3 tbsp. rice flour

1/2 to 1 tsp. powder douce 
1 tbsp. vinegar (I used Apple Cider)

2 tbsp. honey
salt to taste

Prepare as above.  You can serve the spiced syrup separate, or add it to the cereal mixture.  In the picture I made the wine and honey mixtures a syrup and poured over the top.  

Both of these dishes had very balanced flavors, while similar in ingredients and preperation each was different from the other.  

Similar Recipes

Le Viandier de Taillevent (France, ca. 1380 - James Prescott, trans.)

Lenten slices. Take peeled almonds, crush very well in a mortar, steep in water boiled and cooled to lukewarm, strain through cheesecloth, and boil your almondmilk on a few coals for an instant or two. Take some cooked hot water pastries a day or two old and cut them into bits as small as large dice. Take figs, dates and Digne raisins, and slice the figs and dates like the hot water pastries. Throw everything into it, leave it to thicken like Frumenty, and boil some sugar with it. To give it colour, have some saffron for colouring it like Frumenty. It should be gently salted.

Recipes from the Wagstaff Miscellany (England, 1460)

Tayle. Take a lytyll milke of almonds drawyn up with wyn & do hit in a pott do ther to figes reysens & datys cut and sygure & good pondys boyle hit up colour hit with safron & messe hit forth.

Recipes from the Wagstaff Miscellany (Beinecke MS 163) (England, 1460)

Tayle. Take a lytyll milke of almonds drawyn up with wyn & do hit in a pott do ther to figes reysens & datys cut and sygure & good pondys boyle hit up colour hit with safron & messe hit forth.

Bonus Recipe (s) 

DUKE'S POWDER - POLVORA DE DUQUE - Libre del Coch, 1529 

Half an ounce of cinnamon, one eighth of cloves, and for the lords cast in nothing but cinnamon, and a pound of sugar; if you wish to make it sharp in flavor and [good] for afflictions of the stomach, cast in a little ginger.

And the weights of the spices in the apothecary shops are in this manner: one pound is twelve ounces, one ounce, eight drachms; one drachm, three scruples; another way that you can more clearly understand this: a drachm weighs three dineros, a scruple is the weight of one dinero, and a scruple is twenty grains of wheat.

ANOTHER POWDER OF THE DUKE -  DE ALTRA POLVORA DE DUCH 

The Libre del Coch has a second recipe for this spice mix, De altra polvora de duch, which contains 2 oz. ginger, 1/2 drachm galingale, 1 oz. cinnamon, 1 oz. long pepper, 1 oz. grains of paradise, 1 oz. nutmeg, 1/4 oz. fine sugar. 

The Libre de Sent Sovi gives yet another recipe: 1 pound sugar; 1/2 oz. cinnamon; 3/4 oz. ginger; 1/4 oz. total of cloves, nutmeg, galingale, and cardamon.

Duke's Powder

Cinnamon half an ounce --1 tbsp.
Cloves half a quarter (1/8th of an ounce) --3/4 tsp.
Sugar a pound -- (based on the 12 ounce pound) 1 1/2 cups
Ginger - a little --1 tbsp.

This mixture of spices, while not completely white, yields a very light tan powder. This is the mixture that I have used in my interpretation for Bolas and is pictured as the powder filling the dates.

Note: A dry ounce is equal to two tablespoons, or 1/8th of a cup.

Previously published: January 02, 2017

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) -.Cxliiij. Schyconys with þe bruesse - Chicken with the Broth Bonus Recipe: Strong Spice Powder

Schyconys with þe bruesse, Rys & Lange Wortes de pesoun

"I want no peasant in my kingdom to be so poor that he cannot have a poule au pot on Sundays." 

King Henry IV

Oftentimes when you are attempting to interpret older manuscripts you find yourself  going down a rabbit hole attempting to find the meaning of a word.  Bruesse is one such word. After extensive searching I was able to locate the many different ways this word has been spelled in the various manuscripts.  

Brewis, broys, brouwys, browis, brewes, brus, brewish, brewys, brues, brewes, bruesse, brows, breawis, brewis-from the ME Browes, browys, brewes and Old French brouets, meaning a pottage (soup) made with the broth of meat.  Formally defined as broth, liquor in which beef and vegetables have been boiled;sometimes also thickened with bread or meal.  The oldest usage of a form of this word can be traced back to the 13th century. (Murray)

My first thought when I ran across this set of instructions in the Two fifteenth-century cookery-books : Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430), & Harl. MS. 4016 (ab. 1450), with extracts from Ashmole MS. 1439, Laud MS. 553, & Douce MS. 55Thomas Austin, was that it bore a very strong resemblence to a classic dish "Poule Au Pot" only lacking in the vegetables that you would normally see in that dish.  Additionally, the form of the receipt appeared to contain instructions for two separate dishes. 

The first dish was made with "a gode gobet of freysshe beef" and "a dosyn chykonys", the second "stuffe þin chekons" with "hard Eyroun, & take þe ȝolkys & choppe hem smal, & choppe þer-to Clowys, Maces, Hole Pepir, & Stuffe þin chekonys with-al; Also put hole gobettys & marye with ynne" and "Moutoun" if you do not have beef. 

BUT--I was wrong.  There is a third recipe contained in this receipt. "Also þen dresse hem as a pertryche, & fayre coloure hem, & ley vppe-on þis browes, & serue in with Bakoun." Fortunately, I had previously interpreted the recipe for "Petrich Stewyde" which is remarkably similar to this one. The difference being the addition of wine to a basic broth made of beef.  To dress the chicken, in the third interpretation, you would stuff the bird with marrow, clove, mace and pepper. It would then be served with the basic broth made from beef and  marrow, and served with bacon (Bakoun, Bacoun, n. bacon, VIII a 279, 304. [OFr. bacun.]).  

.xviij. Pertrich stewyde.—Take fayre mary,*. [Marrow. No. 28, in Douce MS., has myȝty brothe. ] brothe of Beef or of Motoun, an whan it is wyl sothyn, take þe brothe owt of þe potte, an strayne it thorw a straynour, an put it on an erþen potte; þan take a gode quantyte of wyne, as þow it were half, an put þer-to; þan take þe pertryche, an stuffe hym wyth hole pepir, an merw,*. [Marrow. ] an than sewe þe ventys of þe pertriche, an take clowys an maces, & hole pepir, an caste it in-to þe potte, an let it boyle to-gederys; an whan þe pertryche is boylid y-now, take þe potte of þe fyre, an whan thou schalt serue hym forth, caste in-to þe potte powder gyngere, salt, safron, an serue forth.

When it comes to partridges we are given this instruction on how to cook them: 

Pecokkes and Parteriches schalle be parboyled, and larded, and rosted and eten with pouder of gynger. (Warner) 

For more information on medieval bacon, I highly recommend Tomas de Courcy's very well researched and interpreted article "Medieval Bacon".  I have used his methods to make my own, and can attest it is delicious!

The instructions in the manuscript are written below:

.Cxliiij. Schyconys with þe bruesse.—Take halfe a dosyn Chykonys, & putte hem in-to a potte; þen putte þer-to a gode gobet of freysshe Beef, & lat hem boyle wyl; putte þer-to Percely, Sawge leuys, Sauerey, noȝt to smal hakkyd; putte þer-to Safroun y-now; þen kytte þin Brewes, & skalde hem with þe same broþe; Salt it wyl; & but þou haue Beef, take Motoun, but fyrste Stuffe þin chekons in þis wyse: take & seþe hard Eyroun, & take þe ȝolkys & choppe hem smal, & choppe þer-to Clowys, Maces, Hole Pepir, & Stuffe þin chekonys with-al; Also put hole gobettys & marye with ynne; Also þen dresse hem as a pertryche, & fayre coloure hem, & ley vppe-on þis browes, & serue in with Bakoun.

My interpretation of this receipt are below: 

Cxliiij - Schyconys with the bruesse. Take halfe a dosyn Chykonys, and putte hem in-to a potte; then putte ther-to a gode gobet of freysshe Beef, and lat hem boyle wyl; putte ther-to Percely, Sawge leuys, Sauerey, no3t to smal hakkyd; putte ther-to Safroun y-now; then kytte thin Brewes, and skalde hem with the same brothe; Salt it wyl; and but thou haue Beef, take Motoun, but fyrste Stuffe thin chekons in this wyse: take and sethe hard Eyroun, and take the 3olkys and choppe hem smal, and choppe ther-to Clowys, Maces, Hole Pepir, and Stuffe thin chekonys with-al; Also put hole gobettys and marye with ynne; Also then dresse hem as a pertryche, and fayre coloure hem, and ley vppe-on this browes, and serue in with Bakoun.

143 -  Chicken with the broth.  Take half a dozen chickens, and put them into a pot; then put there-to a good piece of fresh beef, and let them boil well; put there-to parsley, sage leaves, savory, not to small cut; put there-to saffron enough; then cut your broth (I wonder if this is supposed to be chickens and beef?), and scald them with the same broth; salt it well; and if you do not have beef, take mutton, but first stuff your chickens in this way: take and cook hard eggs, and take the yolks, and chop them small, and chop there-to cloves, mace, whole pepper, and stuff your chicken with-al; also put hole pieces and marrow within. Also, then dress them as a partridge, and fair color them, and lay upon this broth, and serve it with bacon. 

Interpreted Recipes                                               Serves 6-8 

Version 1:  Chicken cooked in Savory Beef Broth

1 chicken (4-5 pound) cut into parts, skin on, bone in

1 -2 beef marrow bone(s), split 

1 - 2 pound beef chuck

1 tsp each parsley, sage, savory (or one bouquet garni of fresh herbs)

Pinch Saffron

1 tsp salt

2-3 quarts beef broth

Version 2:

1- 2 pounds lamb for stew 

1 chicken (4-5 pound) skin on, bone in

2-3 hardboiled eggs, yolks removed and finely chopped

1-2 tsp. "strong spice" blend

1/2 - 1 tsp. ginger

1 -2 beef marrow bone(s), split (opt. salt pork or bacon)

2-3 quarts beef broth

Version 3: 

1 chicken (4-5 pound), cut into parts, skin on, bone in

6 ounces bacon or salt pork

1-2 tsp. Strong Spices

1/2 to 1 tsp. ginger

Pinch of saffron (opt)

2-3 quarts beef broth

Heat your broth in your pot.  

Version 1: Add chicken, beef and spices and cook till meat is tender.  

Version 2: Finely chop egg yolks and mix with strong spices. Add marrow (in lieu of marrow you could use salt pork or bacon which will change the flavor but give the necessary fat component) and stuff this mixture into the chicken.  Alternatively, you could put the yolk back into the egg white, and push the egg whites together to resemble a whole egg, and place the egg and marrow into the cavity of the chicken along with remaining dressing.  

Add whole chicken to a pot along with the lamb and cook until the meat is tender. 

Version 3: Add chicken pieces and bacon to a pot along with the spices and cook until the meat is tender. 

Note: I made the third version of this dish using a cornish game hen which I had cut in half instead of a chicken. The broth was seasoned with the strong spices and the salted pork. It is pictured with Rys (rice) and Lange Wortes de pesoun (braised greens with peas).  The sweetness of the Rys (Rice) was a perfect counterpoint to the broth.  I ladeled off some of the excess broth to the final cook on the peas.  Also pictured is Robert May's French Bread. 

To Serve: This is a very brothy dish and should be served in a first course  as a pottage or "meat cooked in broth".  I personally would cook this dish ahead of time, allow to cool overnight, remove excessive fat, and pick out the bones leaving the meat in chunks. Reheating the broth, I would pour the broth over sops of bread and arrange the meat in chunks on top. Serve with boiled turnips, cabbage, carrots, etc. to round out the meal.  

Alternatively, you could brown the meat and simmer it in the broth until it is cooked through, strain the broth and thicken it with a bit of bread (to appease modern palates) and serve the thickened broth on the side as a "dish with sauce" in the second course. 

Or, you could take a modern spin, and strain the broth, serving it as the pottage, with the boiled meats (picked clean) on the side along with a selection of boiled vegetables. 

Bonus Recipe 

Strong Spice Blend (Powder Forte) - The recipe I use has it's basis in Robert May's "The accomplisht cook or, The art & mystery of cookery (1684) " Bolonia Sausages recipe.  

....then add to it three ounces of whole pepper, two ounces of pepper more
grosly cracked or beaten, whole cloves an ounce, nutmegs an ounce
finely beaten, salt, spanish, or peter-salt, an ounce of
coriander-seed finely beaten, or carraway-seed, cinamon an ounce
fine beaten...

*Note: A dry ounce is approximately two tablespoons.  

6 tablespoons whole pepper

4 tablespoons cracked pepper

2 tbsp. whole cloves, nutmegs, coriander or caraway and cinnamon

Salt to taste

1/4th Recipe - A little more manageable

1 1/2 tbsp. whole black peppercorn

1 tbsp. cracked pepper

1 1/2  tsp. each clove, nutmeg, coriander (or fennel) and cinnamon
Salt to taste

Combine all spices together in a spice grinder and grind till fine.  If you do not have a spice grinder a morter and pestle will do and barring that, the trusty rolling pin and a plastic bag work (don't ask).  Store and use as needed

Sources Used

Medieval Cookery - Medieval Cookbook Search. (2020). Retrieved 31 October 2020, from http://www.medievalcookery.com/search/display.html?ancie:68:PRTRJ

Murray, J. A. H., Bradley, H., Craigie, W. A., Onions, C. T. (1888). A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles: Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by the Philological Society. United Kingdom: Clarendon Press.

Warner, R. (1791). Antiquitates Culinariæ: Or, Curious Tracts Relating to the Culinary Affairs of the Old English, with a Preliminary Discourse, Notes, and Illustrations. United Kingdom: R. Blamire.

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) - lv. Iuschelle of Fysshe.

lv. Iuschelle of Fysshe - Fish Dumplings

This unusual recipe found in  Two fifteenth-century cookery-books : Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430), & Harl. MS. 4016 (ab. 1450), with extracts from Ashmole MS. 1439, Laud MS. 553, & Douce MS. 55 by Thomas Austin  immediately caught my eye and I had to try it.  Originally I had assumed that this dish would produce results similar to Guisseƚƚ, a recipe for a savory bread dumpling, cooked in broth. I had always been a bit uncertain of that research, until I realized that the formula ofr Iuschelle of Fysshe is very similar to modern day quenelles, mixtures of meat or fish combined with breadcrumbs and cream that are usually poached.  

To follow up on the theory it became important to understand what the term Iuschelle meant. The Middle English Dictionary defines Iuschelle (jussel n. Also jus(s)elle, jushel(le & guissel.) as:

A dish made of eggs, or eggs mixed with grated bread, cooked in a seasoned broth; ~ of flesh; ~ sengle; ~ enforced, such a dish served with a sweet and spicy creamed sauce; (b) a dish made of fish roe and grated bread mixed and cooked in a fish broth; ~ of fish.

The Middle English Compendium defines frye as: 

Fri(e) - Also frī(e n.(2) Also friʒe (frye). Spawn or the young of fish; small fish

I believe that instead of the "roe" or the mass of eggs found inside a fish, this recipe is referring to the fry or newly hatched fish that no longer have an egg sac attached. I would suggest using any available smaller fish to create this recipe, or substituting roe for the fry. If you are unable to get pike, you may want to substitute cod, pollock, whiting, catfish or any other lean white fish.

.lv. Iuschelle of Fysshe.—Take fayre Frye of Pyke, and caste it raw on a morter, an caste þer-to gratid brede, an bray hem as smale as þow mayste; & ȝif it be to stondyng, caste þer-to Almaunde mylke, an bray hem to-gederys, an stere it to-gederys, & caste þer-to a littel Safroun & Salt, an whyte Sugre, an putte al in a fayre Treen bolle, & toyle*. [Twillein Douce MS. ] it to-gederys wyth þin hond, an loke þat it be noȝt to chargeaunt, but as a man may pore it out of þe bolle; and þan take a Chafoure or a panne, an caste þer-in fayre grauey of pyke or of Freysshe Samoun, y-draw þorw a straynoure, & sette[leaf 14.] it on þe fyre; þanne take fayre Percely an Sawge, an caste þer-to, an lat it boyle, an caste þer-to a lytil Safroun an Salt; and whan it hath y-boylid a whyle, stere it faste, an caste þe Stuffe þer-to, an stere it euermore; an whan alle is oute of þe bolle, caste a litil an a litil in-to þe chafoure, or þe panne; stere it soffter an sofftere, tylle it come to-gedere; þan gader it to-gederys with a ladelle or a Skymoure, softe, tille it be round to-gedere; þanne take it fro þe fyre, an sette þe vesselle on a fewe colys, an late it wexe styf be hys owne acord; þan serue forth.

55. Juschelle of Fish - Take fair fry of pike, and caste it raw on a mortar, and cast there-to grated bread, and bray them as small as you may; and if it be to standing (thick), caste there-to almond milk, and bray them together; and stir it together, and caste there-to a little saffron and salt, and white sugar, and put all in a fair tureen bowl and stir it together with your hand, and look that it be not to thick, but as a man may pour it out of the bowl; and then take a chafing dish or a pan, and caste there-in fair gravy of pike, or of fresh salmon, drawn through a strainer and set it on the fire, then take fair parsley and sage, and caste there-to, and let it boil, and cast there-to a little saffron and salt, and when it has boiled a while, stir it fast, and cast the stuff there-to and stir it evermore; an when all is out of the bowl, cast a little and a little in to the chafing-dish or the pan; stir it softer and softer, till it come together; then gather it to together with a ladle or a skimmer, soft, till it be round together; then take it from the fire, and set the vessel on a few coals, and let it wax stiff be his own accord; then serve forth.

Recipe Serves 6 - 8 (or more as smaller appetizers)

Fish Dumplings

1 pound lean white fish, cut into 1" pieces
2 slices bread, crusts removed
1 cup almond milk
1 egg white (to help bind fish- included here because eggs are a primary ingredient in Guisseƚƚ but are missing from this recipe)
Pinch of saffron
Salt and pepper to taste
Sugar to taste

Broth

4 cups fish stock
3 sprigs of fresh parsley (can substitute 1 tbsp. dried)
1/2 tsp. sage
Pinch of Saffron


Please, please, please--this cannot be stressed enough--use a well flavored stock (gravy) for your broth to poach the dumplings in, otherwise this dish will be very bland. I would strongly suggest that you make your own following the directions that can be found here, and substituting fish bones for beef or chicken bones. You may also want to round out the flavor of the stock by adding some fennel and white wine as part of the cooking liquid.

If you are unable to secure enough fish scraps and bones to make a broth, you can substitute a 50/50 mixture of vegetable stock and chicken stock. I would caution against using a premade "seafood stock" unless you are very certain that nobody with a shellfish allergy will be present. Seafood stock is usually made with shells of crab, shrimp, lobster in addition to fish bones.


Warm the milk up slightly and add saffron to it. Allow it to come to a cool temperature.


To make your dumplings you will want to soak your bread in the milk and then mash it until it becomes a paste. Grind your fish, either by using a blender, or using a sausage maker. It is important that the fish retain some texture and is not a paste. Blend the bread paste with the fish and remaining ingredients.

Here you have a choice. You can follow the medieval instructions of bringing the broth to a boil, stirring it quickly and adding your fish mixture to the broth. This, I imagine will act like poaching an egg, and allow the mixture to come together similar to a poached egg, or, like the Guissel, form many jagged dumplings of an uneven size. Continue to stir until the mixture becomes thick. The instructions state to " then take it from the fire, and set the vessel on a few coals, and let it wax stiff be his own accord; then serve forth." This method appears to suggest that the dumplings should be allowed to continue to cook for a short time before serving.

Or, you can diverge (as I did) and follow a more modern method of bringing a large pot of salted water to just below a simmer, and dropping your dough into it by the tablespoonful. If you are following this method, the dumplings will fall to the bottom of the pot and then rise up when they are completely cooked.


To serve, place your dumplings into your broth, garnish as desired and serve it forth.


This may seem like a very "fussy" dish to serve at an event, however, the dumplings can be made ahead of time and frozen prior to poaching. Day of the event, remove your frozen dumplings, place them in the boiling and salted water and proceed as per usual.

This is a very delicate dish, it could serve as a pottage in a first course, or, the dumplings can be served without broth or sauce on the side of a main dish in the second course as a garnish, or to round out the meal. I would suggest that plating the fish dumplings in a thin puddle of beautifully hot stock, garnished with boiled vegetables (asparagus, leeks, parsnips or a non-orange carrot) would be lovely.

Similar Recipes

Ancient Cookery [Arundel 334], (England, 1425)

Jussel of sysshe. Take frye of female pike, and pille away the skyn; and take the liver of codlinge, and bray altogeder; and take grated bred and cast therto in the brayinge, and when it waxes stif put hit into a chargeour, and colour hit depe with saffron; and then take grave of pyke, and grave of congur, and of calver salmon, and put al into a panne; and take parcel (parsley), and sauge hewen, but not too smalle, and boyle hit ensemble.; and when hit is boyled put in a potstik and stere hit wel, and ' when hit begynnes to crudde do away the potstik, and let hit boyle afterwarde a gode qwyle ; and then set hit doun, and dresse up fix leches in a dysshe, and strawe theron pouder of ginger; and serve hit forthe.

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) - Cxxxvij. Chykonys in dropey Chicken with Gravy & .Clij. Capoun in Salome - Capon and Gravy

Chykonys in dropey with a Diuers Sallets boyled

When I came across this set of instructions in Two fifteenth-century cookery-books : Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430), & Harl. MS. 4016 (ab. 1450), with extracts from Ashmole MS. 1439, Laud MS. 553, & Douce MS. 55 Thomas Austin I became excited and knew I had to try it.  When I first read through it, I believed that it contained some of the earliest instructions for using roux as a thickening agent.  I fell into the trap of using what I knew and applying it creating the assumption that I would know what the end result would be. Mia Culpa. 

What is dropey? The the Middle English Dictionary defines "Dropey" as a kind of sauce for fowl.  

drope (n.) Also drope, dropeie, (?error) drore.  A sauce or dressing for fowl.  (a1399) Form Cury p.18: Dropee.  Take blanched Almandes, grynde hem and temper hem up with gode broth; take Oynons..and frye hem and do thereto: take smale bryddes, parboyle hem [etc.]. ?c1425 Arun. Cook. Recipes 429: Drore to Potage. Take almonds..brothe of flesshe...onyons..small briddes [etc.] ibid. 449: At the seconde course drope, and rose to potage. al450 Hrl.Cook.Bk.(1) 30: Chykons in dropeye. 

A pottage is anything that can be cooked in a pot. Fortified by the definition I found, I had convinced myself that using a mixture of the almond milk, wheat starch or rice flour and the alkanet colored grease was the correct direction to go. However, according to the "The Food History Timeline", roux is a 17th century French preparation. 

 Roux in French literally means 'reddish' (or 'orange') hence the first roux were made by cooking flour and butter together until a reddish tint was obtained then using this to thicken a souce or broth. Its widespread use in French cooking seems to date from the mid-17th century. At that time, La Varenne (1651) described the preparation of a liaison de farine (flour thickener) made by cooking flour in lard and, by the end of the century, cooks are referring to this mixture either as farine frit or roux.

What then was the purpose of mixing the grease and alkenade together as we are advised to? 

"þen take fayre freysshe grece, & putte Alkenade þer-to, & gader his coloure þer-of"

It was not until I had researched similar recipes that I found the answer.  One of the earliest versions of Chykonys in Dropey can be found in "The Forme of Cury" by Samuel Pegge. There is another set of instructions for a dish called Fonnell, that instructs us to use grease that has been heated until it melted with alkanet as a decoration for the dish before it is sent out to the table.  I have used these instructions for the interpretation of Chyknoys in Dropey presented above. 

FONNELL [1]. XX.III. II.

Take Almandes unblaunched. grynde hem and drawe hem up with gode broth, take a lombe [2] or a kidde and half rost hym. or the þridde [3] part, smyte hym in gobetes and cast hym to the mylke. take smale briddes yfasted and ystyned [4]. and do þerto sugur, powdour of canell and salt, take zolkes of ayrenn harde ysode and cleeue [5] a two and ypaunced [6] with flour of canell and florish þe sewe above. take alkenet fryed and yfoundred [7] and droppe above with a feþur [8] and messe it forth.

[1] Fonnell. Nothing in the recipe leads to the etymon of this multifarious dish. [2] Lombe. Lamb. [3] thridde. Third, per metathesin. [4] yfasted (made secure) and ystyned (closed). [5] cleeue. cloven. [6] ypaunced. pounced. [7] yfoundred. melted, dissolved. [8] feþ'. feather.

Original Recipe

.Cxxxvij. Chykons in dropeye.—They schul ben fayre y-boylid in fayre watere tyl þey ben y-now, þen take hem fyrst, & choppe hem smal: & whan þey ben y-now, tempere vppe a gode Almaunde mylke of þe same, & with Wyne: a-lye it with Amyndon, oþer with [leaf 24.] floure of Rys: þen take fayre freysshe grece, & putte Alkenade þer-to, & gader his coloure þer-of, & ley þe quarterys .v. or .vj. in a dysshe, as it wole come a-bowte, & Salt it atte þe dressoure, sprynge with a feþer or .ij. here & þere a-bowte þe dysshe; & ȝif þou lyst, put þer-on pouder of Gyngere, but noȝt a-boue, but in þe potage, & þan serue forth.

Interpretation

137 - Chicken in Dropeye - They should be fair boiled in fair water till they be enough, then take them first and chop them small, and when they be enough, temper up a good almond milk of the same, and with wine, mix with wheat starch, or with flour of rice, then take fair fresh grease, and put alkanet there-to, and gather his color there-of and let they be quarters five or six in a dish, as it will come about, and salt it at the dresser, sprinkle (sprynge) with a feather or two here and there about the dish, and if you like, put there-on powder ginger, but not above, but in the potage, and then serve forth.

Chicken in Dropey 

Yield: 2 Servings

Ingredients

2 boneless and skinless chicken breasts or chicken thighs (for ease of serving)
1 cup almond milk made with broth chicken was boiled in

1 tbsp. wheat starch or riceflour, or 1 1/2 tbsp. unbleached white all purpose flour
2 tbsp. lard (preferred), or butter or oil can be substituted (I used bacon grease)

1 1/2 tsp. powdered alkanet

1/2 tsp. salt 

1/4 tsp. pepper 

1/2 tsp. ground ginger

Opt: 1 chicken bouilloncube or 1 cup  chicken stock instead of water to cook chicken in for extra flavor, up to 1/4 cup dry white wine.

Directions

Add alkanet powder to oil, lard or butter and heat slowly. Allow alkanet and oil to steep while completing the remaining steps.  Alternately, you can do this step ahead of time, and allow oil and alkanet to steep overnight. 

Boil your chicken until it is tender. Remove from broth and keep warm.  

Use the broth the chicken that was cooked in to make your almond milk. For instructions on how to make your own quick almond milk, visit this link:  Almond Milk

Heat almond milk and wine if you are using it, to just below a simmer and add wheat starch or rice flour, salt and pepper.  Cook until the sauce begins to thicken.  Once sauce begins to thicken remove from the heat and allow the carry over to continue to cook it.  

To Serve: 

For ease of presentation, serve the chicken sliced, sprinkled with a bit of salt and pepper.  Drizzle the almond milk sauce over the top of the chicken and then decorate with the alkanet oil and a pinch of powdered ginger. 

Note:  This is a dish that had been boiled in broth and is served with a sauce. It would be an appropriate dish to serve before a dish of roasted meats as a first course in a "modern medieval feast".

I found this to be a very simple and easy dish to put together, I paired it with a boiled salad made of mixed greens, onions and currants that had been boiled in water, and then sprinkled with powdered douce and fresh made bread.  The house smells divine! 

It was a good meal enjoyed by both me and the taste tester.  I did not use the wine in the recipe but opted to use bouillon cubes to add additional flavor to the chicken as it cooked.  

This is a very striking dish to look at, and a little bit of the alkanet oil does go a long way.  Although alkanet is a bit difficult to obtain, and slightly costly, the cost is offset by how far a little bit of it would go. In addition to being a good course to serve before a roasted, fried, baked or grilled course, this would make a very lovely luncheon for royalty. 

.Clij. Capoun in Salome.—Take a Capoun & skalde hym, Roste hym, þen take þikke Almaunde mylke, temper it wyth wyne Whyte oþer Red, take a lytyl Saunderys & a lytyl Safroun, & make it a marbyl coloure, & so atte þe dressoure þrow on hym in ye kychoun, & þrow þe Mylke a-boue, & þat is most commelyche, & serue forth.

Clij - Capoun in Salome. Take a Capoun and skalde hym, Roste hym, then take thikke Almaunde mylke, temper it wyth wyne Whyte other Red, take a lytyl Saunderys and a lytyl Safroun, and make it a marbyl coloure, and so atte the dressoure throw on hym in ye kychoun, and throw the Mylke a-boue, and that is most comely, and serue forth.

152.  Capon in Salome.  Take a capon and scald him, roast him, then take thick almond milk, temper it with wine, white or red, take a little saunders, and a little saffron, and make it a marble color, and so at the dresser, throw him in the kitchen, and throw the mil above, and that is most comely, and serve forth. 

2 boneless and skinless chicken breasts or chicken thighs (for ease of serving)
1 cup almond milk made with 1/4 cup white or red wine

1 1/2 tsp. powdered saffron or sanders 

1/2 tsp. salt  (for modern taste)

1/4 tsp. pepper (for modern taste)

As above.  

Similar Recipes

Forme of Cury (England, 1390)

DREPEE [1]. XIX.

Take blanched Almandes grynde hem and temper hem up with gode broth take Oynouns a grete quantite parboyle hem and frye hem and do þerto. take smale bryddes [2] parboyle hem and do þerto Pellydore [3] and salt. and a lytel grece.

[1] Drepee. Qu. [2] bryddes. Birds. Per metathesin; v. R. in Indice. [3] Pellydore. Perhaps pellitory. Peletour, 104.

Fourme of Curye [Rylands MS 7] (England, 1390)

.xix. Drepee. Take blaunched almaundes, grynd hem & temper up with gode broth take oynouns a grete quantite, & boile hem & fry hem & fo therto, take smale briddes perboile hem & do therto, & do therto pellydore & salt & a litul grece.

Ancient Cookery [Arundel 334] (England, 1425)

Servise on flesshe-day. Bores-hed enarmed (ornamented), and bruce to potage; and therwith beefs, and moton, and pestels (legs) of porke; and therwith swan and conynge rosted, and tarte. 

At the seconde course drope, and rose to potage; and therwith maudelard and faisant, and chekons farsed (stuffed) and rosted, and malachis baken. 

At the thridde course conynges in grave, and bore in brasc to potage; and therwith teles rosted, and partriches, ande woodcock, and snytes, and raffyolys baken, and flampoyntes.

Drore to potage. Take almondes, and blaunche hom, and grynde hom, and temper hit up wyth gode brothe of flesshe, and do hit in a pot, 'and let hit sethe; and take onyons, and mince hom, andfrye hom in freshe greeseand do therto; then take smale briddes, and parboyle hom, and do thereto, and put thereto pouder of canel, and of clowes, and a lytel faire grees, and let hit be white, and let hit boyle, and serve it forthe.

Of Marche Violets - Mell Violatum (Voilet Honey), Oyl of Violets (Violet Oil), Vyolette (Violet Pottage), To Make Syrupe of Violets (Violet Syrup)

"Violets are God's apology for February..." 

-Barbara Johnson 

Family: Violaceae 

Names:  Violet, Sweete Violet, Viola nigra, Viola purpure, Virgil Vaccinium, Viola, Marche violet, Viola porporea,Viola mammola,Violetas,Violette de Mars, Blauw veiel, Mertzen violen, Violetten, Violaria, and Ma∣ter violarum.

Usage: Culinary, Medical 

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Of Marche Violets. Chap. i. (A Nievve Herball, 1554)

❀ The Kyndes.

THere be two sortes of Violets: the garden and the wilde Violet. The Garden violets are of a fayre darke or shining deepe blewe colour, and a very pleasant and amiable smell. The wilde Violets are without sa∣uour, and of a fainte blewe or pale colour.
❀ The Description.

[ 1] The sweete Garden or Marche violet, creepeth alongst ye ground like the Strawberie plante, fa∣stening it selfe and taking roote in diuers places: his leaues be rounde and blackish like to Iuye leaues, sauing they be smal∣ler, rounder, and tenderer: emongst the whiche leaues there springeth vp fayre & pleasant floures of a darke blew colour, eache floure growing alone by him selfe, vpon a little small and tender stemme. The floures are diuided into fiue small leaues, wherof the middle of the floures, with the tippes or poynted endes of the leaues are speckled or spotted with a cer∣tayne reddish yellow. After the floures there appeareth round bullets, or huskes full of seede, the whiche being ripe do o∣pen and diuide themselues into three partes, the roote is tender & of threddish strings.
Of this sorte, there is an other kinde planted in gardens, whose floures are very double, and full of leaues.

There is also a thirde kinde, bearing floures as white as snow.

And also a fourth kinde (but not very common) whose floures be of a darke Crymsen, or old reddish purple colour, in all other poyntes like to the first, as in his leaues, seede, and growing.

[ 2] The wilde is like to the garden Violet, but that his leaues are far smaller, his floures are somwhat greater, but much paler, yea sometimes almost white, and without sauour.

❧ The Place.

The sweete garden Violet, groweth vnder hedges, and about the borders of fieldes and pastures, in good ground and fertyle soyle, and it is also set and planted in gardens. The wilde kinde whiche is without smell, groweth in the borders of dry, leane, and barren fieldes.

The garden violet floureth in Marche and Aprill. The wilde also doth floure in Aprill, and afterwardes.

❀ The Names.

The sweete Violet is called in Greeke 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉: in Latine Viola nigra, Viola purpurea: & of Virgil Vaccinium: in Shoppes Viola: in English Violets, the garden Violet , the sweete ← Violet, and the Marche violet : in Italian Viola porporea, and Viola mammola: in Spanish Violetas: in Frenche Violette de Mars, ou de quaresme: in high Douch Blauw veiel, or Mertzen violen: in base Almaigne Violetten: the Violet plante or herbe is called in Shoppes Violaria, and Ma∣ter violarum.

❀ The cause of the Greeke name.

The sweete Violet(as the Emperour Constantine wryteth) was called in Greeke Ion, after the name of that sweete guirle or pleasant damosell Io, which Iupiter, after that he had gotte her with childe, turned her into a trim Heaf∣fer or gallant Cowe, bycause that his wife Iuno (beyng bothe an angry and Ielous Goddesse) should not suspect that he loued Ion. In the honour of which his Io, as also for her more delicate and holsome feeding, the earth at the commaundement of Iupiter brought foorth Violettes, the whiche after the name of his welbeloued Io, he called in Greeke Ion: and therefore they are al∣so called in Latine, as some do wryte, Violae, quasi vitulae & Vaccinia. Nican∣der wryteth, that the name of Ion was giuen vnto Violettes, bycause of the Nymphes of Ionia, who firste of all presented Iupiter with these kindes of floures.

❀ The Nature or Temperament.

Violets are colde in the first degree, and moyst in the second.

❀ The Vertues.

[ A] The Decoction of Violets is good against hoate feuers, and the inflamma∣tion of the Liuer, and all other inwarde partes, driuing forth by siege the hoate and cholerique humors. The like propertie hath the iuyce, syrupe, or conserue of the same.

[ B] The syrupe of Violets is good against the inflammation of the lunges and breast, and against the Pleurisie, and cough, and also against feuers or Agues, but especially in yong children.

[ C] The same Syrupe cureth all inflammations and roughnesse of the throte if it be much kept or often holden in the mouth. The sugar of violets, and also the conserue, and iuyce, bringeth the same to passe.

[ D] That yellow whiche is in the middest of the floures, boyled in water, is good to be gargled in the throte agaynst the squinancie or swelling in the throte: it is also good to be dronken agaynst the falling sickenesse in yong chil∣dren.

[ E] Violets pounde and layde to the head alone, or mengled with oyle, remo∣ueth the extreame heate, swageth head-ache, prouoketh sleepe, and moysteneth the brayne: it is good therefore against the drynesse of the head, against melan∣choly, and dulnesse or heauinesse of Spirite.

[ F] Violets brused or stamped with barlie meale, are good to be layde vpon phlegmons, that is to say, hoate unpostumes or carbuncles, and they heale the inflammation and paine of the eyes, also the hoate vlcers, and the inflammation that commeth with the falling downe of the fundament.

[ G] The seede of Violettes, dronken with wine or water, is good agaynst the stingings of Scorpions.

[ H] The herbe or plante is very good against hoate feuers, and the inflamma∣tions of the liuer, and looseth the belly.

[ I] The wilde Violets are almost of the same vertue, but they be a great deale weaker, and therefore they are not vsed in Medicine.

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A compendious treatise, of Nicholas Prepositas. (1588)

92 A confection of honny and violets, called Mell violatum.

TAke of the flowers of violets one part, of good honny thrée partes, séeth them with a soft fire.

This is a singular remedie in hote agues, because it maketh the body moist and also laxatius, it aswageth dri∣nes of the stomacke and the brest.

112 Oyle of Violets.

TAke of the oyle of oliues two lib. of young violets stam∣ped, foure ℥. put them into a glasse, and set them in the sunne the space of seuen daies, afterward boyle them in a double vessell the space of thrée houres, then straine them, and reserue them: Paulus AEgineta doth call this oyle Ia∣ton, and wryteth that it is made of the purple violets, or els of the yealow violets, which many iudge to be hearts ease, be willeth also that violets shall stand ten daies in the sunne, and to be thrée times changed, and the vessell to be so stopped that no ayre may enter in, and in the meane time, you may put vnto these, of dry violets.

This asswageth all inflamations in what part so euer they be, it mollyfieth exulcer ations and stiffenes of the breast and lungs, it mitigateth hot impostumes, and the plewrisie.

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Culpeper's School Of Physick, 1659

Of Almond Butter.

ALmond Butter is made with fine Sugar and Rose-water, eaten with the flowers of Violets, it is a commendable Dish, most in season in Lent, when the Violets are fragrant; it re∣joyceth the heart, comforts the brain, and quali∣fies the heat of the liver.

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An English Herbal, 1690

Violets grow in Gardens and wild, are under Venus, but very cooling and harmless; they abate Infections. The Syrup or Decoction of Root, Leaf, and Flower purge the Blood, Reins, Bladder, Matrix; Outwardly apply'd as a Poultice, it helpeth Headach, abates Swellings and Imposthumes: Inwardly taken, they open Obstructions of the Liver, cure Jaundice, hot Agues, and make a good Gargle for Mouth and Throat.

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Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) lxxxxj - Vyolette. Nym Almaunde Mylke, an flowre of Rys, and pouder Gyngere, Galyngale, Pepir, Datis, Fygys, and Rasonys y-corven, an coloure it with Safroun, an boyle it and make it chargeaunt; an whan thou dressyste, take the flowres, an hew hem, an styre it ther-with; nyme the braunchys with the flowres, an sette a-boue and serue it Forth.

91. Violet -take almond milk, and flower of rice, and powder ginger, galingale, pepper, dates, figs and raisons cut, and color it with saffron, and boil it and make it thick. And when you dress it, take the flowers and cut them, and stir it there-with; cut the branches with the flowers and set above and serve forth. 

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) - .Cxxv. Vyolette - Violet  - Take Flourys of Vyolet, boyle hem, presse hem, bray hem smal, temper hem vppe with Almaunde mylke, or gode Cowe Mylke, a-lye it with Amyndoun or Flowre of Rys; take Sugre y-now, an putte ther-to, or hony in defaute; coloure it with the same that the flowrys be on y-peyntid a-boue.

125. Violet - Take flowers of violets, boil them, press them, cut them small, temper them up with almond milk or good cow milk, mix it with amyndoun or rice flour; take sugar enough, and put there-to, or honey in default; color it with the same that the flowers be on painted above.

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To Make Syrupe of Violets.

Take your Violets, and pick the flowers, and weigh them, and then put them into a quart of water, and steepe them vpon hot embers, vntill such time as the flowers be turned white, and the water as blew as any violet, then take to that quart of infusion and take foure pound of clarified Suger, & boyle it till it come to a syrupe, scumming them and boyling them vpon a gentle fire, least it turne his colour, and being boyled, put the Syrupe vp and keepe it.

A Closet for Ladies and Gentlevvomen, 1608

Sources

Dodoens 1517-1585., R., 2020. A Nievve Herball, Or Historie Of Plantes Wherin Is Contayned The Vvhole Discourse And Perfect Description Of All Sortes Of Herbes And Plantes: Their Diuers [And] Sundry Kindes: Their Straunge Figures, Fashions, And Shapes: Their Names, Natures, Operations, And Vertues: And That Not Onely Of Those Whiche Are Here Growyng In This Our Countrie Of Englande, But Of All Others Also Of Forrayne Realmes, Commonly Vsed In Physicke. First Set Foorth In The Doutche Or Almaigne Tongue, By That Learned D. Rembert Dodoens, Physition To The Emperour: And Nowe First Translated Out Of French Into English, By Henry Lyte Esquyer.. [online] Available at: <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A20579.0001.001> [Accessed 14 August 2020].


Name.umdl.umich.edu. 2020. An English Herbal, Or, A Discovery Of The Physical Vertues Of All Herbs In This Kingdom What Planet Governs Each Herb, And How To Gather Them In Their Planetary Hours : Containing Some Hundreds Of Medicines Made Of English Herbs, Whereby Any Person May Keep His Body In Health, Or Cure Himself When Sick, For A Small Charge, With Such Herbs And Roots As Naturally Grow In England : Collected For A General Good.. [online] Available at: <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A38455.0001.001> [Accessed 14 August 2020].

Quod.lib.umich.edu. 2020. Culpeper's School Of Physick, Or, The Experimental Practice Of The Whole Art Wherein Are Contained All Inward Diseases From The Head To The Foot, With Their Proper And Effectuall Cures, Such Diet Set Down As Ought To Be Observed In Sickness Or In Health : With Other Safe Wayes For Preserving Of Life ... / By Nich. Culpeper ... ; The Narrative Of The Authors Life Is Prefixed, With His Nativity Calculated, Together With The Testimony Of His Late Wife, Mrs Alice Culpeper, And Others.. [online] Available at: <https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A35394.0001.001/1:37?rgn=div1;submit=Go;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=purslane> [Accessed 14 August 2020].

Name.umdl.umich.edu. 2020. Prepositas His Practise A Vvorke Very Necessary To Be Vsed For The Better Preseruation Of The Health Of Man. Wherein Are Not Onely Most Excellent And Approued Medicines, Receiptes, And Ointmentes Of Great Vertue, But Also Most Pretious Waters, Against Many Infirmities Of The Body. The Way How To Make Euery The Said Seuerall Medicines, Receiptes, And Ointmentes. With A Table For The Ready Finding Out Of Euery The Diseases, And The Remedies For The Same. Translated Out Of Latin Into English By L.M.. [online] Available at: <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A09920.0001.001> [Accessed 14 August 2020].

Homemade Vegetable stock, Vegetable Stock Powder & Homemade Bouillon Cubes

I am not sure about you, but for myself, I worry about my budget when I am cooking and -any- place I can cut corners I do.  I am constantly looking for what I like to call 'found foods'.  Items that make something from what would otherwise be nothing.  Stocks are one of those items.  They add flavor to your dishes and can be quite costly, or salty or may contain items that were not found in period if you choose to purchase them.  In order to shave the cost off my budget, and to ensure that I know what I am serving, I make a lot of my own stocks, powders and bouillon cubes which make use of items I have already purchased, but would otherwise throw away--it's a win-win. 

Outlined below will be the instructions for homemade vegetable stock powder which can travel with you and can be used to add additional flavor to any dish.  It does not require refridgeration so it is a perfect "camp food". You will also find instructions for making vegetable stock, meat stock and homemade bouillon.  Bouillon requires refridgeration but it is a flavor BOMB and is another item I consider a necessary food to take on camping trips.

Vegetable Stock Powder

1 unpeeled carrot
2 celery stalks
1 onion
1 leek
2-3 cloves of garlic
a handful of parsley
2-3 sprigs of thyme
1 -2 sprigs of rosemary
Salt

Opt: Other vegetables or herbs as desired

Wash your vegetables and herbs and then run through the food processor--you want them to be very finely chopped if you do not have a food processor.  Before cooking them you will want to weigh them.  Your salt content should be approximately 20% of the total weight of your vegetables.  If you have 16 ounces of vegetables, pre-cooked weight you will want to add about 3 ounces of salt. I prefer sea salt.

Mix thoroughly and place your vegetables into a pot over low heat. Cook about two hours.  Stir occasionally. You will notice at first the mix can get quite soupy as the vegetables release their water. Don't worry, the vegetables will reabsorb the water. When the water has been completely reabsorbed you can move onto the next step. 

 Spread the vegetables onto a parchment lined baking tray.  Bake at the lowest setting in your oven (mine is 170), until the vegetables have dried out and become crispy.  You will want to stir them every so often while they dry in the oven.  Allow them to cool and then process in your food processor until the vegetables become a powder.  You can store the powder for about three months in an airtight jar. 

To use: add 1 tsp of powder to 1 cup of water, or to taste.

Vegetable Stock 

Have tired vegetables in your drawers? Vegetable peels? Don't throw them out.  Save them in the freezer and when you have some time, use them to make vegetable stock. This is an easy and cost effective way to use up vegetables and vegetable parts (carrot peels, onion tops, celery leaves and the white woody ends, etc.) you would otherwise throw away. Your feast budget will thank you. If you are making a vegetable stock be sure to include mushrooms, tomatoes (if not cooking period) or nori--do not skip this. These vegetables create "umami", a savory or meaty flavor to your stock which is very much needed in vegetable stock.

For the most basic of stocks you will need carrots, celery and onions (leave the skins on; it turns the broth brown), but don't stop there, you can add flavor with tomato or mushrooms, leeks, beets (it creates a lovely red broth), asparagus, squash, fennel, eggplant etc. There are a few vegetables that you may not want to use, or use sparingly, cabbage being one.  The others include turnips, rutabega, artichoke, cauliflower and broccoli.  I personally enjoy the "bitter" notes that the cabbage and turnips add to a long-cooked broth, but I caution you to use your best judgement. Also--it should go without saying, if the vegetables go beyond tired to spoiled, rotten or moldy--don't use them.

The process is simple, and requires just a little bit of elbow grease and time.  

To begin, saute your sturdier vegetables in the barest bit of oil until tender.  Cover with water, add any seasoning you wish (salt, pepper, garlic, rosemary, thyme, savory, etc.), bring to a boil, cover with a lid and lower to simmer--walk away and forget it for at least an hour.  An hour is absolute minimum to make any stock--the longer the simmer, the more flavor you get.  Near the end of the cooking process you are going to want to taste for salt and flavor.  If it's lacking, you can add tomato paste (if  you are not cooking a period dish) or nutritional yeast (for a cheesy, umami flavor).  Turn off, let cool, strain, and store.  Vegetable stock will keep approximately five days in a fridge, or nearly forever frozen. 

Homemade Bouillon

Bouillon is a fancy name for broth. There was a time that I would reach for the cubes in order to flavor stocks, broths, gravies and other dishes.  Unfortunately, they are full of salt, MSG and other things, such as hydrogenated oils, that I just don't want to share with those I love when an alternative is available.

The first thing you should notice is that this is more of a method, than it is a recipe and it should start with -any- homemade stock; beef, chicken, pork, mixed or vegetable.  It takes the process of making stock one step further to create a flavor bomb. Follow the instructions below to get you started on this adventure.

To Make Stock

Making your own stocks are very cost effective for feasts, so save your bones and your scraps of veggies! Just toss them in a ziplock bag in the freezer until you have enough to make a good stock. Make your stock and can or freeze until needed.

There are two separate ways to make stock. The first is on the stove top/slow cooker and the second is in your oven. For any stock you will need bones (preferably some with meat), vegetables, aromatics, water and time--lots and lots of time.

I prefer to roast my bones before making any meat stock which adds an additional flavor component.  Simply place your bones in a baking dish and roast  in a 400 degree oven for approximately 45 minutes.  If the bones were frozen,  you will want to thaw them before you roast.  Marrow bones really benefit from this step, developing a deep, rich flavor while they roast. DO NOT skip this step. 

A good stock will -always- start with cold water. During the initial boiling of the stock--skim, skim, skim. You want to remove any and all impurities that come to the surface. After the initial boiling, lower your temperature to a simmer, cover with a lid slightly askew and  forget it.  I know you will be tempted (I know I am) but *never, ever!* stir the stock once you set it to simmering. This will make it cloudy and a sign of a good stock is that it should be clear and richly colored at the end of the process. 

A really good meat stock will convert to a gelatin when cold. This happens because the collagen in the bones dissolves which can only happen during a very long simmering process.  A good stock has a deep, well-developed flavor that is imparted through the aromatics and vegetables. The longer your stock cooks the better it is. 

My basic veggie blend for any stock includes a couple of carrots, celery and onions. For seasoning, I  also use parsley, rosemary, thyme, bay, garlic and black pepper. Wash your vegetables, roughly chop and make a bed of them for your roasted bones. There is no need to peel, unless the skin has been damaged in some way. 

Stovetop Method

A good rule of thumb to remember is that for every pound of bones you will need approximately 2 quarts of water. When making stock, be sure that the bones are covered by at least an inch. Add your aromatics, bring to a boil, skim off the scum and then lower the heat and simmer. Simmer times vary but I prefer about five hours for most stocks. Use your best judgment.

Oven Method

Stock will cook overnight in a 275 degree oven.  This is a great method to use and I use it quite often. I just tuck the bones, vegetables and water into a roasting pan (usually the one I roast the bones in so I can get all the great flavor from the bottom of the pan) and go to bed. In the morning I have a lovely stock.  

Once you have finished cooking your stock, strain it at least once to make sure that you are removing all the bits. I do this by lining a wire strainer with a piece of muslin and pouring the stock through it. Allow your stock to cool overnight. Once the stock has cooled remove the fat, reheat and strain it once again just to make sure that it is very clear.

To Make Bouillon

Once your stock has been made, skimmed and strained, you can begin the method of reducing the stock to its own concentrated bouillon.  This is especially useful if space is an issue.  One gallon of stock will reduce to about 1 cup (yes, 1 cup!) of liquid bouillon. 

Return your stock to a pot and bring to a fast boil, then lower to simmer and cook till the stock has reduced by half. This will prevent the stock from over-reducing and burning. You will know that your stock has reduced enough when it has thickened to a sauce that will coat the back of a spoon, has the consistency of a syrup, is lush, glossy and rich! It should be a bit runny with some weight to it.  

To set your bouillon, line an 8x8 or 8x13 pan, or an ice cube tray (depending on the amount of stock you have) with plastic wrap and pour the cooled sauce into it and refridgerate overnight.  To store, cut your bouillon into squares and place in small jars or Ziplock bags.  They will store two months in the fridge or up to a year in the freezer.

To use, approximate measure is 1 tsp per cup of water. 

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) - Cxi. Tannye

Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430) - Cxi. Tannye

I have become fascinated by the array of colors that could be found in the food of this particular time period.  Here is one such example that I found in Two fifteenth-century cookery-books : Harleian MS. 279 (ab 1430), & Harl. MS. 4016 (ab. 1450), with extracts from Ashmole MS. 1439, Laud MS. 553, & Douce MS. 55 Thomas Austin, which uses the simplest of ingredients to create a drink whose name is also it's color.

While doing research for this dish I ran across a very interesting book, Renaissance Colour Symbolism - By Roy Osborne.  I confess I have only begun to read it, but I have developed a much greater respect for this recipe because of it.  I did not realize how symbolic colors were in our late period and the early Renaissance.  One of the more interesting things I discovered was the fact that it was believed that God infused all of his creations with symbolism, and nowhere was this more present then in color.

Colors represented virtues.  For example,  the "seven worldly virtues" identified by  Jean Courtois (Le Blason de toutes armes et escutz-The Blazon of all Arms and Escutcheons, 1420) which identified armorial tinctures thus:

Gold (or) - wealth (richesse)
Silver (argent) - purity (purete)
Red (gules) - eminence (haultesse)
Blue (azure) - loyalty (loyaulte)
Green (vert) - happiness (lyesse)
Black (sable) - modesty (simplesse)
purple (purpure) - abundance of goods (habondance de biens)

The Church identified the colors as faith (or), hope (argent), charity (gules), justice (azure), fortitude (vert) prudence (sable) and temperance (purpure).  The seasons also were represented through color, spring as vert, summer as gules, autumn as azure and winter as sable. The planets also had representative colors:

Sun (or)
Mars (gules)
Moon (argent)
Jupiter (azure)
Mercury (purpure)
Venus (vert)
Saturn (sable)

Color symbolism was applied to humoral theory and the seven ages of man. For more information on  medieval dietary theory, which includes a very brief synopsis on humoral theory, and the application of it in creating modern feast menu's, please see my research paper located here.

Sanguine (gules)
Choleric (azure)
Phlegmatic (argent)
Melancholic (sable)

Argent (infancy, up to seven years)
Azure (childhood, up to fifteen years)
Or (adolescence, up to twenty-five years)
Vert (youth, up to thirty-five years)
Gules (maturity up to fifty years)
Purpure (elderliness up to seventy years)
Sable (decreptitude to death)

Knowing how significant color was in this time period, I wanted to know if the final product had a significance attached to it.  I was excited to find that it did.  The color tawny which leans towards white or yellow displays contrition, innocence and feigned joy, while the regular color, represented by the "Tannye" found in the manuscript should be reddish represents great courage or false valor. Geoffrey Whitney's "Choice of Emblemes (1585), has a poem "In Colores" talking about the color associations common with the dyer's craft.  In this poem we can see the name of the recipe, is actually a description of it's color.

For mourners, blacke, for the religious, white,
Which is a sign of conscience pure and free.
The greene agrees with them in hpe that live,
And eeke [also] to youth this colour wee doe give.
The yelowe next, unto the covetous wighte [person],
And unto those whom jelousie doth fret.
The man refus'd, in tannye [tawny] doth delite [delight].

.Cxj. Tannye.—Take almaunde Mylke, & Sugre, an powdere Gyngere, & of Galyngale, & of Canelle, and Rede Wyne, & boyle y-fere: & þat is gode tannye.

111. Tannye - Take almond milk, and sugar, and powder ginger, and of galingale, and of cinnamon, and red wine, and boil fair; and that is good tannye.

Interpreted Recipe 

3/4 cup almond milk (I used quick almond milk)
2 tsp. or more sugar (to taste)
1/4 tsp. ginger (or half tsp. ginger if no galingale)
1/4 tsp. galingale
Pinch of Cinnamon
1/4 cup red wine

Note: there is the possibility that your almond milk may curdle when red wine is added and the drink is brought to a boil.  Wine is acidic and adding acid to almond milk is how you make Fride Creme of Almaundys - Cold Cream of Almonds, a lenten alternative to butter or creamy cheese.  The trick is to heat all the ingredients together to just below a simmer, and then serve.  It's that easy.  If it curdles, and they bother you, strain through a strainer before serving. I am ok with it, so you can see that my tannye got a little curdled.  I let it get too warm.  This is delicious, slightly reminiscent of mulled wine with the ginger being the main spice, the cinnamon warmly following, and the almond milk making it creamy.  A must serve for a winter's revel.

More Information: 

Renaissance Colour Symbolism - By Roy Osborne

Purslane - Recipe: To Pickle Purslain

Common Purslane - Portulaca oleracea

Family: Portulacaceae
Names: Purslane, Pusley, Pursley, Pigweed, Little Hogweed, Hogweed, Purslain, Garden Purslain, Red Root, Verdolaga, Wild Portulaca, Khorfeh, Duckweed, Purcelaine, Procelayne (Grete Herballe, 1516), Pourpier

Usage: Culinary, Medical

De portulace. Porcelayne / Ca. CCC.xl. (Grete Herballe, 1526)

POrtulax is a vertuous herbe. It coldeth in ye thyrde degre and moy∣steth in the secōde / and hath vertu to softē and to kele. It is good meate for coleryke folkes that be dyseased with feuers caused of coler. And also for them that be hole / yf it be eaten rawe it is profytable. The wa¦ter of the decoccyon is good to conserue the heate of the inwarde membres. It coleth the heet of feuers / it prouoketh vryne and vnbyndeth ye bely. It prouffyteth agaynst clyftes of the lyppes and fleyenges of the mouthe. Brenne the rote therof in a bras∣sen vessell and make powdre confyct with hony / and anoynte the lyppes therwith / & also it paleth the synsures of lazers anoyn∣ted therwith.

¶ For hote apostumes: A

¶ And yf it be brayed with vyneygre it is good agaynst hote apostumes. The iuce therof with all the herbe is prouffytable agaynst the hurtes of the bowelles / for it soupleth them. And is good to moderate ye vnmoderate flux of the matryce. Howbeit yf it be vsed to moche it marreth the syght and coleth the body / & letteth the coleryke vomyte / and habytacyon of woman. The sayd herbe chawed with a lytell vyneygre stoppeth the bledynge at the nose / and swa¦geth the brennynge of the stomake caused of coler. It is good agaynst feuers yf a playster therof be layde to the stomake wt a lytell vyneygre. It healeth ye tothe ache yf it be chawed / and healeth blaynes yf it be brused and layde theron.

¶ For payne of the reynes. B

¶ The iuce therof is good agaynst payne of the reynes and of the bladder / & restray¦neth the floures or menstrues in women. Water therof is good for bledynge emor∣roydes.

The sea Purcelayne flowreth in Iuly. (A Nievve Herball, 1554)

The Names.

Purcelayne is called in Greke 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉: in Latine and in shoppes Portulaca: in Frenche, Pourpier → , or Pourcelaine: in high Douche, Burgel: in base Almaigne, Porceleyne: in English, Purcelayne.

[ 1] The first kinde is called Portulaca satiua, or Hortensis: in Frenche, ← Pourpier → , or Pourcelaine domestique, or cultinée: in high Douche, Heymisch Burgel, or Burtzes∣kraut: in base Almaigne, Roomsche Porceleyne, or tamme Porceleyne: in En∣glish, garden and tame Purcelayne.

[ 2] The seconde kinde is called of the newe writers, Portulaca syluestris: in Frenche, ← Pourpier sauuage: in high Douche, Wildt Burtzel: in base Almaigne, Ghemeyne, or wilde Porceleyne: in English, Wild Purcelayne: but yet this is not that wild Purcelayne, which is described in some copies of Dioscorides, the which is of a hoate nature or complexion.

[ 3] The thirde kinde of Purcelayne of the later writers, is called Portulaca ma∣rina: in Frenche, Pourcelaine de mer▪ in Douch, Zee Porceleyne. This seemeth to be that herbe which the Greekes call 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉: the Latinistes, Halimus, especially the seconde kinde described by Plinie.

❀ The Nature.

[ 1.2] The garden and wilde Purcelayne are cold in the thirde degree, and moyst in the seconde.

[ 3] Sea Purcelayne is playnely hoate and drie in the seconde degree.

❀ The Vertues.

[ A] They vse to eate the garden and wild Purcelayne in Salades and meates, as they do Letuce, but it cooleth the blood, and maketh it waterie & nourisheth very litle: yet for all that, it is good for those that haue great heate in their sto∣mackes and inwarde partes.

[ B] The same taken in lyke sort, stoppeth all defluxions and falling downe of humours, and is good for the paynes of the bladder and kidneyes, & it healeth them, albeit they be exulcerated, fret or hurt.

[ C] Purcelayne comforteth the weake inflamed stomacke, & it taketh away the imaginations, dreames, fansies, & the outragious desire to the lust of the body.

[ D] The iuyce of Purcelayne dronken hath the same vertue: also it is good a∣gainst burning feuers, & against the wormes that ingender in the body of man.

[ E] It is good for such as spit blood, it stoppeth the blooddy flixe, the fluxe of the Hemoroides, & al issues of blood. It hath the like vertue being boyled & eaten.

[ F] The iuyce of Purcelayne powred vpon the head with oyle & vineger roset, swageth the head ache comming of heate, or of standing to long in the Sonne.

[ G] The same throwen vp into the mother or matrix, helpeth the burning in∣flammations, exulceratiōs, or gnawing frettings in the same, & powred in by a glister, it is good against the flixe of the guttes & exulceration of the bowelles.

[ H] The leaues of Purcelayne mingled with parched barley meale, and layde to the inflammations of the eyes, easeth the same, and taketh away the hoate swelling: so it is likewise good against S. Antonies fier, called Erysipelas: a∣gainst the heate and payne of the head, and against all hoate inflammations and tumours.

[ I] The same eaten rawe, are good against the teeth being set on edge, or asto∣nied, and it fasteneth them that be loose.

[ K] To conclude, Purcelayne cooleth all that is hoate, wherefore being layde vpon woundes, eyther by it selfe or with the meale of parched barley, it preser∣ueth woundes from inflammation.

[ L] The seede of Purcelayne beyng taken, kylleth and driueth foorth wormes, and stoppeth the laske.

[ M] The Sea Purcelayne is gathered in the sommer, and is of some preserued and kept in vineger for Salade, to be eaten at winter like Capers: for being so eaten, it doth heate and comfort the stomacke, causeth good appetite, or meate lust, and prouoketh vrine.

[ N] If this Purcelayne be Halimus, the roote thereof is good against crampes and drawing awry of sinewes, burstinges and gnawinges in the belly, to be taken in Meade the waight of a dramme. It also causeth Nurses to haue store of milke.

Of white Beets and Purslane. (Culpeper's School Of Physick, 1659)

WHite Beets are good for the Liver and for the Spleen, are abstercine. Pur∣slane doth abate the ardor of lasciviousness, and mittigates heat in the inward parts of the head and eyes: if preserved in brine, it heats and purges the stomach; it is cold in the third de∣gree, and moist in the second.

Kit-keys, Crucifex, Pease or Purslane pickled. (The Compleat Cook, 1664)

Take any of the aforesaid, and lay them in as much Wine as Water, with a little Salt, then boil them after this, put them in∣to a Pot, and cover them with Vinegar made of White wine.

Purslain pickled. (The English And French Cook, 1674)

Gather them at their full growth, but not too old, parboil them and keep them in
White wine Vinegar and Sugar.

To pickle Pursla•e to keep all the year. (The Cook's Guide, 1664)

TAke the biggest stalks picked clean, the• strew bay-salt first into your pot, and then th• stalks of Purslane, and then salt again, so do ti•l your pot be full, then tye it up close and keep it cool.

Interpreted Recipe (adapted from modern recipe)

Purslane
1 cup Vinegar (apple cider preferred)
1/2 cup water
2 tbsp. sugar or honey
Modern recipes add 1 onion sliced, 1 tsp. salt, 1/2 tsp. each cumin, coriander and mustard seeds, and three whole allspice.
Use only the thickest part of the purslane stems- Wash the purslane. Pinch off the clusters of leaves and any stems that are too skinny to pickle (these are great added to soup as a nautral thickener or on salad).
Chop the thicker purslane stems into pieces approximately 1 1/2-2 inches long.
Combine the vinegar, water, sugar or honey, salt and spices in a medium pot. Bring to a boil over high heat. Reduce the heat and simmer for 5 minutes to release the flavors of the spices.
If you are following the modern version, layer purslane and onions and brine in jars, until you are unable to add more. Pour the hot brine over the purslane stems. The liquid should completely cover them, but still, have at least 1/2 an inch of space between the surface of the brine and the rims of the jars.
Screw on the lids, hot water bath them. Let sit at least a week, but the longer the better.

Sources

Dodoens 1517-1585., R., 2020. A Nievve Herball, Or Historie Of Plantes Wherin Is Contayned The Vvhole Discourse And Perfect Description Of All Sortes Of Herbes And Plantes: Their Diuers [And] Sundry Kindes: Their Straunge Figures, Fashions, And Shapes: Their Names, Natures, Operations, And Vertues: And That Not Onely Of Those Whiche Are Here Growyng In This Our Countrie Of Englande, But Of All Others Also Of Forrayne Realmes, Commonly Vsed In Physicke. First Set Foorth In The Doutche Or Almaigne Tongue, By That Learned D. Rembert Dodoens, Physition To The Emperour: And Nowe First Translated Out Of French Into English, By Henry Lyte Esquyer.. [online] Available at: <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A20579.0001.001> [Accessed 4 August 2020].

Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership. 2011. The Grete Herball Whiche Geueth Parfyt Knowlege And Vnderstandyng Of All Maner Of Herbes [And] There Gracyous Vertues Whiche God Hath Ordeyned For Our Prosperous Welfare And Helth, For They Hele [And] Cure All Maner Of Dyseases And Sekenesses That Fall Or Mysfortune To All Maner Of Creatoures Of God Created, Practysed By Many Expert And Wyse Maysters, As Auicenna [And] Other. [Et]C. Also It Geueth Full Parfyte Vnderstandynge Of The Booke Lately Prentyd By Me (Peter Treueris) Named The Noble Experiens Of The Vertuous Handwarke Of Surgery.. [online] Available at: <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A03048.0001.001> [Accessed 4 August 2020].

Quod.lib.umich.edu. 2020. Culpeper's School Of Physick, Or, The Experimental Practice Of The Whole Art Wherein Are Contained All Inward Diseases From The Head To The Foot, With Their Proper And Effectuall Cures, Such Diet Set Down As Ought To Be Observed In Sickness Or In Health : With Other Safe Wayes For Preserving Of Life ... / By Nich. Culpeper ... ; The Narrative Of The Authors Life Is Prefixed, With His Nativity Calculated, Together With The Testimony Of His Late Wife, Mrs Alice Culpeper, And Others.. [online] Available at: <https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A35394.0001.001/1:37?rgn=div1;submit=Go;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=purslane> [Accessed 4 August 2020].

Quod.lib.umich.edu. 2020. The Compleat Cook: Or, The Whole Art Of Cookery Describing The Best And Newest Ways Of Ordering And Dressing All Sorts Of Flesh, Fish, And Fowl, Whether Boiled, Baked, Stewed, Roasted, Broiled, Frigacied, Fryed, Souc'd, Marrinated, Or Pickled; With Their Proper Sauces And Garnishes. Together Vvith All Manner Of The Most Approved Soops And Potages Used, Either In England Or France. By T.P. J.P. R.C. N.B. And Several Other Approved Cooks Of London And Westminster.. [online] Available at: <https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A80288.0001.001/1:3?rgn=div1;submit=Go;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=Purslane> [Accessed 4 August 2020].

Quod.lib.umich.edu. 2020. The English And French Cook Describing The Best And Newest Ways Of Ordering And Dressing All Sorts Of Flesh, Fish And Fowl, Whether Boiled, Baked, Stewed, Roasted, Broiled, Frigassied, Fryed, Souc'd, Marrinated, Or Pickled; With Their Proper Sauces And Garnishes: Together With All Manner Of The Most Approved Soops And Potages Used, Either In England Or France. By T. P. J. P. R. C. N. B. And Several Other Approved Cooks Of London And Westminster.. [online] Available at: <https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A53974.0001.001/1:3.11.35?c=eebo;c=eebo2;g=eebogroup;rgn=div3;view=fulltext;xc=1;q1=cookbook> [Accessed 4 August 2020].

Quod.lib.umich.edu. 2020. The Cook's Guide: Or, Rare Receipts For Cookery Published And Set Forth Particularly For Ladies And Gentlwomen; Being Very Beneficial For All Those That Desire The True Way Of Dressing Of All Sorts Of Flesh, Fowles, And Fish; The Best Directions For All Manner Of Kickshaws, And The Most Ho-Good Sawces: Whereby Noble Persons And Others In Their Hospitalities May Be Gratified In Their Gusto's. Never Before Printed. By Hannah Wolley.. [online] Available at: <https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A66843.0001.001/1:6.2?g=eebogroup;rgn=div2;submit=Go;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;xc=1;q1=purslane> [Accessed 4 August 2020].