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A Dynere of Flesche — John Russell’s Medieval Feast and the Logic of Digestion

Medieval banquet scene with a roasted peacock re-dressed in its feathers presented at table.

Roasted peacock served “re-plumed,” a classic showpiece in late-medieval banquets. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Introduction

In the mid-fifteenth century, court official John Russell compiled the Boke of Nurture (Harley MS 4011), a manual of etiquette, service, and feasting. Among its most intriguing passages is “A Dynere of Flesche”—a model feast for a flesh day. At first glance it reads like excess: swan, peacock, venison, custards, jellies, fritters, sotelties. But beneath the display lies clear order, guided by humoral theory and the theory of digestion.

Humoral theory:

Foods are classified hot/cold, moist/dry.
The goal was balance — so heavy/dry meats might be paired with moist/sweet sauces, or cooling jellies follow heating roasts.

Theory of Digestion (stomach as a fireplace model):
- Light, quick-digesting foods first (whet the appetite, “open the stomach”).
- Heavy meats mid-meal (need the appetite at full flame).
- Cooling or binding foods at the end (to “close the stomach” and aid digestion).
- Spices and hippocras (spiced wine) seal the stomach and prevent putrefaction.

Feasting, Status, and Seasonality

Russell’s menu was a model feast—aspirational and didactic. It reflected both status and medical order:

Luxury foods: swan, peacock, crane, bustard, sea bream inland, imported sugar, almonds, and rice.
Sotelties: allegorical sugar or pastry sculptures, more about piety and performance than eating.
Hierarchy: the high table saw the full spread; lower tables ate simpler portions.
Seasonality: autumn/winter hunting game + preserved foods (brawn, baked quinces, hippocras). Likely a winter festival setting—Christmas or Twelfth Night.

The Logic of the Courses

First Course: Awakening the Appetite

The feast begins with brawn of boar with mustard. Preserved brawn (salted/pressed) was hot/dry, paired with mustard (also hot/dry) to stimulate appetite. Then came pottages of herbs, spice, and wine (warm, moist, aromatic), followed by staples—beef and mutton, heavy and dry but softened by sauces. Showpieces—pheasant and swan with chawdron sauce, capons, pig, venison bake—balanced humors by variety. The course lifted with leches and fritters, hot/oily appetite stimulants, and paused with a sotelty of the Annunciation.

Second Course: Heaviest Roasts & Entremets

The second course starts gently with blancmanger (chicken and almond, moist and white) and jellies (cooling, clarifying). Then came the heaviest fare: venison, kid, fawn, coney, bustard, stork, crane, peacock, heron. These were dry/hot meats, demanding the stomach’s “strongest fire.”

Between them: entremets—custards, pastries, sweet leches—moist refreshers, palate cleansers, and spectacles. A fritter revived appetite, and an angelic sotelty provided allegory and pause.

Third Course: Stepping Down

Cream of almonds and mawmany were restorative and nourishing. Smaller roasts—curlews, snipes, quails, sparrows—replaced great birds. Moist/cooling dishes returned: perch in jelly, crayfish. Quinces baked (astringent) helped close digestion, alongside sage fritters and spiced leches. A Magi sotelty provided solemn close.

Finale: Issue & Sendoff

The issue de table included pippins (apples) with caraway comfits, custard (blaunderelle), wafers, and hippocras. Apples (cold/dry) restrained excess; caraway (hot/dry) dispelled wind; hippocras (spiced wine) “sealed” the stomach.

Overall Temperament by Course

Hot Cold Moist Dry Astringent

Course / Stage	Overall Temperament	Why this net effect?
First Course	Hot Dry (+Moist from pottages)	Opens with mustard & preserved brawn (hot/dry stimulants), then warm/moist pottages; heavy meats appear early but are sauced. Net effect = warming/activating with a slight dry edge to “open the stomach.”
Second Course	Hot Dry (+ moderated by Moist entremets)	Heaviest roasts (venison, crane, peacock) are hot/dry at peak digestion; custards/jellies (entremets) punctuate to moisten/refresh. Net effect = the feast’s hottest/driest point, tempered between platters.
Third Course	Moist Cool (+ Astringent close)	Steps down with smaller birds and moist/cooling fish in jelly; baked quinces add astringency to begin closure; sage fritters give brief warmth without flipping the net trend.
Finale (Issue & Boute-hors)	Cool Dry → sealed by HotDry (hippocras)	Raw apples + caraway comfits = cool/dry & wind-dispelling; wafers are light/dry. Final seal with hippocras (hot/dry) “closes the stomach” and guards against putrefaction.

Show SCA stages with temperament

SCA Stage	Temperament	Notes
On Table / Entrance	HotDry	Mustard & brawn stimulate and announce status.
Pottages & Gentle Dishes	MoistWarm	Opens and soothes the stomach.
Great Roasts	HotDry	Peak heat/dryness; serve when digestion is strongest.
Entremets	MoistCool	Palate/digestion refreshers between roasts.
Lighter Birds & Fish	MoistCool	Step-down phase toward closure.
Dessert / Fruit	Astringent	Begins the “binding” close (quinces, etc.).
Issue	CoolDry	Raw apples + comfits; wafers light and crisp.
Boute-hors	HotDry	Hippocras seals the stomach.

Feast Planning with Russell’s Menu

For SCA feast planners, Russell’s feast maps neatly into modern service frameworks:

Downloadable Resources:

Stage	Dishes from Russell’s Menu	Digestive Role
On Table / Entrance	Mustard & brawn	Stimulates appetite, prestige
Pottages	Pottage, blancmanger, jellies	Gentle starters, open stomach
Great Roasts	Beef, mutton, venison, swan, peacock, bustard, crane, etc.	Heaviest, driest meats; mid-digestion
Entremets	Custards, pastries, fritters, sotelties	Palate refreshers, visual allegories
Lighter Birds & Fish	Curlew, quail, perch in jelly, crayfish	Moist/cooling, easier to digest
Dessert / Fruit	Quinces baked, sage fritters	Astringent closure, sharpen digestion
Issue	Apples with caraway, wafers	Refresh and bind, dispel wind
Boute-hors	Hippocras	Spiced wine to seal digestion

Mythbusting Russell’s Feast

“Feasts were chaotic.” ❌ They followed medical choreography.
“Everyone ate the same food.” ❌ Hierarchy dictated portions.
“Peacock and swan were delicacies.” ❌ They were tough; value lay in spectacle.
“Sugar was common.” ❌ It was a costly luxury spice.
“Fritters were desserts only.” ❌ They appear in every course as stimulants.
“Fruit was always cooked.” ❌ The pippins at issue were raw, paired with comfits.

✅ Dos & ❌ Don’ts by Course

First Course
✅ Pair heavy meats with moist dishes (pottage, sauce)
❌ Don’t open with multiple cold/moist foods — they dull appetite
Second Course
✅ Interleave entremets between heavy roasts
❌ Don’t serve only hot/dry roasts back-to-back — digestion overload
Third Course
✅ Use cooling/moist dishes (fish, almond cream) to “calm the stomach”
❌ Don’t drop in new hot/dry meats here — it reverses the descent
Finale
✅ Always end with an astringent fruit + spiced closer
❌ Don’t pile sweets without balance — needs closure to “seal digestion”

Conclusion

Russell’s Dynere of Flesche shows that medieval dining was deliberate: humoral balance, digestive order, spectacle, and hierarchy all interlaced. What seems like excess was careful choreography. For modern readers—and especially SCA feast stewards—it offers both inspiration and a reminder: a medieval feast was an art of health and performance.

Why this matters today: Russell’s feast reminds us that medieval banquets were not chaotic indulgence, but carefully balanced systems of health, status, and art. It’s a reminder that food has always been about more than eating—it shapes identity, power, and performance at the table.

Glossary: a few terms

Chawdron: rich sauce of entrails/offal.
Entremets: “between-dishes” (light/spectacular interludes).
Sotelty: edible allegory/sculpture, more for the eyes than the stomach.
Issue de table: light closing bites after courses.
Boute-hors: sendoff drink(s), e.g., hippocras.

Source: John Russell, Boke of Nurture, Harleian MS 4011, fol. 171 (c. 1460).

Cretonnée de Pois (Split Pea Pottage)

Renaissance banquet scene in Veronese’s House of Levi; a lavish table evocative of rich savory pies like garlic torte. — “The Feast in the House of Levi” (detail), Paolo Veronese. Used here as period context for a Renaissance pottage.

Cretonnée de Pois (Split Pea Pottage)

Source: Odile Redon, Françoise Sabban & Silvano Serventi, The Medieval Kitchen (1998)

ℹ️ What is a Cretonnée?

A cretonnée is a type of medieval French pottage — basically a thick soup or stew — that usually combined a base of legumes or grains (peas, beans, rice, sometimes bread) with milk and egg yolks to create a rich, creamy texture.

Name origin: From Old French cretonnée, related to creton (a kind of porridge or mash). It signals a dish that’s been enriched or bound together.
Core structure: Unlike plain boiled peas or beans, a cretonnée always has that second stage of enrichment — eggs, milk (or almond milk on fast days), and sometimes saffron or spices.
Variations: Surviving recipes include cretonnée of peas, beans, rice, and even bread. Meat or poultry could be added as garnish, but it wasn’t always necessary.
Place in the feast: Because it was wet, spoonable, and thickened, it was served as part of the pottage course — after appetizers but before heavier roasts.
Luxury markers: Saffron, ginger, and almond milk were expensive, so even though peas and beans were humble, the finished dish could be quite elegant.

In short: a cretonnée is a thickened legume (or grain) pottage with milk and eggs, often spiced and colored, that straddles the line between hearty comfort food and refined banquet fare.

🍽 Menu Placement

This dish belongs in the pottage course of a medieval feast:

Form & texture: A wet, spooned dish thickened with peas and eggs.
Balance: The warmth of ginger and richness of yolks offered contrast to lighter appetizers and heavier roasts.
Flexibility: With or without meat, it fit either lean days or richer spreads.

⚖️ Humoral Qualities

Peas were considered cold and dry, best balanced with warming spices and saffron. Eggs and milk added moist warmth, making the dish more nourishing and suitable for colder seasons or balancing excess dryness in the body.

📜 Original Recipe

Middle French:
Cretonnée de pois: Prenez pois, et les lavez bien, et mettez à cuire; et quand ils seront cuits, mettez lait d’amandes, saffran et jaunes d’œufs, et faites cuire ensemble; et y mettez des pièces de char ou de poulaille, se vous voulez.

📜 Original Recipe (translation)

Cretonnée of peas: Take peas and wash them well, then boil them; and when they are almost cooked, add warm milk, egg yolks, and saffron, and let it all thicken together; and you may add pieces of meat if desired.

Del Brodo Saracenico – Saracen Chicken with Fruits & Almonds (Redon, 1998)

Name: Golden Fried Marzipan from Messisbugo
Prep time: 30 min
Cook time: 20 min
Total time: 50 min
Yield: 8–12 servings
Cuisine: Italian
Ingredients: 1 frozen pie pastry (or homemade pastry dough); 1 1/2 cups almond flour; 1 cup powdered sugar; 3 tbsp water; 1 tsp rosewater; 1/2 tsp cinnamon, clove, or nutmeg

Del brodo saracenico appears in medieval Italian sources and in modern redaction by Odile Redon et al. (1998). It marries roasted capon or chicken with wine, tart “acid juices,” toasted bread, almonds, dates, raisins, and a gentle spice blend—classic agrodolce (sweet-tart) Renaissance vibes with an evident Mediterranean/Arabic influence.

📜 Original Historic Recipe

Latin (Liber de Coquina, late 13^th c.)

De brodio sarracenio: pro brodio sarraceno, accipe capones assatos et ficatella eorum cum speciebus et pane assato tere bene, distemperando cum bono vino et succis agris. Tunc frange membratim dictos capones et cum predictis mite ad bulliendum in olla, suppositis dactilis, uvis grecis siccis, amigdalis integris mondatis et lardo sufficienti. Colora sicut placet.

English (modern translation)

“Saracenic broth: to make Saracenic broth, take roasted capons and their livers with spices and toasted bread, pound them well, diluting with good wine and acidic juices. Then cut the capons into pieces and cook in a pot with the ingredients mentioned before, placing on top dates, Greek raisins, whole peeled almonds, and sufficient lardo. Color as you like.”

Note: Source and translation discussion in the references below.

Une Vinaigrette (Beef & Onions with Wine-Ginger Sauce)

Torta d’Aglio (Garlic Torte) – Renaissance Savory Pie with Cheese, Garlic & Spices

Context

Une Vinaigrette appears in medieval French sources and was translated by Terence Scully (1998). The dish layers beef (or lamb) with onions and serves it in a sauce of red wine, broth, breadcrumbs, and warming spices—ginger, grains of paradise, pepper, saffron, and vinegar. The result is both hearty and sharp, showing the medieval palate for savory meats balanced with spice and sour notes.

Humoral Qualities

In humoral theory, beef is heavy, hot, and dry, suited to those with strong digestions or balanced by moistening and cooling elements. The onions and wine add heat and sharpness, while the vinegar offers a cooling, cutting quality to aid digestion. The dish would have been considered appropriate in a main roast course, but could also appear earlier to stimulate appetite.

Provenance

The recipe for Une Vinaigrette comes from Le Viandier, one of the most important medieval French cookbooks. Traditionally attributed to Guillaume Tirel (called Taillevent), master cook to King Charles V of France, the text survives in several manuscripts from the late 14th and 15th centuries. It reflects the refined cooking of the French court, where sauces of wine, vinegar, and warming spices balanced the heaviness of roasted meats. Terence Scully’s 1998 edition (The Viandier of Taillevent, University of Ottawa Press) provides a critical edition of the extant manuscripts and the English translation used here.

Original French

Une vinaigrette. Prenez buef ou mouton et coupez en pièces, puis mettez-les à rostir au gril. Prenez oignons et taillez par rondelles, et friez en sain de lart bien cuit. Puis prenez bon vin vermeil et bouillon de buef, et mettez du pain blanc tosté et broyé pour lier. Mettez gingembre, graine de paradis, poivre et saffran, et un petit de vinaigre. Couliez vostre sausse, et mettez vostre viande et oignons dedans; ou les servez à part, et la sausse en un autre plat.

This passage is the basis for Scully’s English rendering: beef or mutton, roasted with onions, served in a sauce of red wine, broth, breadcrumbs, ginger, grains of paradise, saffron, pepper, and vinegar.

Original Text & Modern Translation

Original (Scully, 1998)

Modern Interpretation

Take beef or mutton and cut it in pieces, then put them to roast on the grill. Take onions and slice them into rounds, and fry them in grease until well cooked. Then take good red wine and beef stock, put therein white bread toasted and ground to thicken it, and season with ginger, grains of paradise, pepper and saffron, and a little vinegar. Strain the sauce and put the meat and onions therein; or serve the meat and onions separately, with the sauce in a dish.

Cut beef or lamb into chunks and roast or grill until done, but not overcooked. Slice onions into rounds and sauté them in butter, oil, or lard until golden. For the sauce, simmer red wine and beef broth with breadcrumbs until smooth. Add ginger, pepper, grains of paradise (or allspice), saffron, and a splash of vinegar. Strain the sauce and serve it either mixed with the meat and onions, or on the side as a dip. Excellent served on its own, or with rice or pasta.

Torta d’Aglio (Garlic Torte)

Italian Renaissance • Savory Pie • Feast-Friendly

Torta d’Aglio (Garlic Torte) – Renaissance Savory Pie with Cheese, Garlic & Spices

This savory pie highlights gentled garlic — blanched to soften its sharpness, then blended with fresh cheese, butter, and warming spices. Adapted from Martino’s 15th-century Libro de arte coquinaria, the dish balances flavors in line with Renaissance cooking theory and humoral practice.

🥕 Dietary Notes: Vegetarian & gluten-free adaptations included.

“The Royal Feast” by Alonso Sánchez Coello (1531–1588), oil on canvas, public domain. A sumptuous Renaissance banquet scene that captures the richness and communal spirit of salumi, fruit, and condiments on the table.

Piatti di salumi, formaggi, olive, frutta fresca e secca e senape

Plates of cured meats, cheeses, olives, fresh and dried fruit, and mustard — listed on our 12th Night 2024 menu and served during the Primo seruitio posto in Tavola (first service on the table, antipasti). Charcuterie is a modern framing; the Italian period lens is salumi with fruit, bread, olives, and a sweet-hot mostarda. Prepared and plated by Dan Parker, the board leaned rustic and abundant—grapes spilling over, glossy olives, rosemary releasing aroma as diners reached in.

Period Context: Salumi & Mostarda

While “charcuterie” is a French term, the Italian table has long featured salumi—prosciutto, pancetta, lardo, coppa, and regional salami—paired with breads, olives, grapes, and preserved fruits. Renaissance sources also describe mostarda (sweet fruit with mustard heat). Bartolomeo Scappi (1570) includes a Mostarda amabile that blends cooked quince and apple with sugar, candied citrus, and mustard essence.

Scappi, Opera (1570), Libro II, cap. 276 — “Per far Mostarda amabile”
Quince and apples cooked with wine & sugar, worked with candied citrus and spiced with mustard—pounded to a smooth, sweet-hot sauce.

For this feast I used a modern, chutney-style mostarda for ease and flavor balance (link below), which sits comfortably in the same family even if the texture and acidity are more contemporary.

Mostarda: Period vs. Modern (quick comparison)

How Scappi’s mostarda differs from the modern chutney used at feast

Aspect	Period (Scappi, 1570)	Modern Chutney Used	Practical Notes
Fruits	Quince & apples; candied citrus peels	Apples & pears; dried cherries/cranberries	Both seasonal & flexible; quince gives classic perfume
Sweet/acid	Sugar + wine + grape must	Sugar + white wine + cider vinegar	Modern reads more “chutney” from vinegar
Heat	Mustard essence/seed	Mustard seed + ground mustard + cayenne	Adjust heat post-cook to taste
Texture	Smooth, pounded sauce	Chunky, spoonable conserve	Either pairs well with salumi & cheese
Make-ahead?	Yes — improves with rest	Yes — 3–4 weeks refrigerated	Ideal for feast workflow

Animal detail from medieval illuminated manuscript, British Library Harley MS 3244, 1236-c 1250, f47r

Arrosta — the grand roast course of a Renaissance feast — was far more than just meat on a spit. In Bartolomeo Scappi’s Opera (1570), the arrosta included an impressive variety: spit-roasted meats, braised vegetables, elegant sauces, pasta, and even colorful jellies. This was the third course of our 12th Night 2024 feast, following the Alesso course. It showcased the depth of Italian Renaissance cooking, balancing hearty dishes with refined accompaniments.

For this feast, we adapted Scappi’s recipes for a modern feast kitchen, using brisket in place of a full rack of beef ribs, seasonal vegetables, and accessible modern cooking methods — without losing the rich flavors of the originals.

Historical Context: The Arrosta in Renaissance Dining

Bartolomeo Scappi, personal chef to several Popes, published his monumental cookbook in 1570. His work captures both grand courtly dining and practical Lenten fare. The arrosta course was often the centerpiece of a meal, designed to impress guests with skill, abundance, and variety. Alongside the expected roasts, Scappi included vegetable dishes, pasta, and desserts, showing the Renaissance love for balanced and abundant tables.

In Renaissance banquet tradition, the arrosta — literally “roast” — was more than a single dish. It was a set course, positioned after the boiled meats (al lesso) and before the final sweets, and served as a showcase for the host’s wealth, skill, and access to prime ingredients. In Italian and broader European practice, this course could include not only spit-roasted meats, but also fried, grilled, and baked dishes, as well as richly sauced accompaniments.

Theory of Digestion and Humoral Balance

The Renaissance kitchen did not operate solely on taste — it was deeply influenced by the Galenic theory of digestion. According to this model, digestion happened in stages, with foods progressing from lighter and moister to heavier and drier as the meal went on. Roasted meats were considered among the “drier” preparations, especially when spit-roasted over open flame, which was thought to reduce their innate moisture. Without correction, such dishes were believed to tax the body and cause imbalance in the humors, particularly in those of “dry” constitution.

To make these roasts more healthful and digestible, period cooks paired them with moistening sauces — sweet, tart, or spiced — that counterbalanced dryness. This is why Renaissance cookbooks, including Bartolomeo Scappi’s monumental Opera (1570), often present roast recipes alongside multiple sauce preparations. In our feast, this principle is reflected in the Salsa di Mostardo amabile (sweet mustard sauce) and the walnut-garlic sauce served with the beef.

Variety Within the Roast Course

While the name suggests a single cooking method, the arrosta could include:

Spit-roasted meats — large joints of beef, lamb, game birds.
Grilled dishes — chops, skewers, or offal.
Fried items — fritters, pastries, and delicate morsels.
Baked pies and pasties — often with meat or cheese fillings.

This variety allowed the cook to display mastery over multiple techniques while still keeping within the course’s “dry” category in humoral terms.

Salting as a Preservation Technique

Our beef for this course followed a process rooted in Renaissance preservation methods. Salting was one of the most important means of keeping meat edible beyond the immediate slaughtering period, especially before reliable cold storage. Coarse salt (often mixed with aromatics like fennel, coriander, or garlic) was rubbed into meat to draw out moisture through osmosis, inhibiting bacterial growth. In larger households and urban kitchens, salted meats allowed for advance preparation and easier provisioning — vital for feast service where dozens or even hundreds of guests might be served.

In Scappi’s recipes, salting could be brief — just hours — for seasoning and texture, or extended over several days for preservation. The salted pressed beef method we adapted for our brisket echoes both preservation and seasoning traditions, ensuring flavorful meat that holds its structure through long, slow cooking. In feast context, the ability to produce such meat out of season or far from slaughter was a mark of logistical skill and kitchen sophistication.

Per arrostire allo spiedo un carré di costolette di manzo – To spit-roast a rack of beef ribs (Brisket substitution)
Per brasare le cipolle intere in quaresima – To braise whole onions in Lent
Salsa di noci e aglio – Walnut and Garlic Sauce
Salsa di Mostardo amabile – Sweet Mustard Sauce
Per far diverse minestre di zucche Turchesche – Turkish Squash
Tortelletti d’herba alla Lombarda – Herb tortellini in the Lombard Style
Gelo in bocconcini di piu colori piatti – Jelly in small bites, of many colors

Plates of Golden Fried Marzipan: A Renaissance Delight from Messisbugo

Among the lavish sweets presented at the 12th Night 2024 feast were these exquisite morsels: golden fried marzipan parcels inspired by Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s 16th-century banquet manual. As a court steward to the Duke of Ferrara, Messisbugo carefully documented not only recipes but the artistry of elite Renaissance dining. One such recipe, Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro, reflects both culinary skill and a love for edible ornament.

Original Italian (Messisbugo, 1549)

Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro: Prendi marzapane, et fanne certi tondi o quadrelli, et involgili in una sfoglia sottile fatta di pasta, et friggili con buon strutto caldo; et cavati che saranno, spolverizzali di zucchero, et ponli in piatti, et sopra vi metterai dell’oro fino, se vorrai fare bella cosa.

English Translation

Plates of golden fried marzipan: Take marzipan and form small rounds or squares. Wrap them in a thin pastry sheet, and fry them in good hot lard. Once they are removed, sprinkle with sugar and place them on dishes. If you wish to make a beautiful presentation, place fine gold on top.

Modern Interpretation (Serves 8–12)

Ingredients

1 frozen pie pastry (or homemade pastry dough)
1 1/2 cups almond flour
1 cup powdered sugar
3 tbsp water
1 tsp rosewater
1/2 tsp "common spices" (e.g., cinnamon, clove, nutmeg)

Instructions

Roll out the pie pastry as thin as possible.
Mix together almond flour, sugar, water, rosewater, and spices to form a soft marzipan dough.
Cut pastry into rounds or squares. Add 1 tsp of filling to each, fold over and seal.
Fry in hot oil until golden. Drain and sprinkle with sugar before serving.

Historical Context: Marzipan in Italian Renaissance Cuisine

Marzipan was considered a luxurious ingredient in Renaissance Italy, associated with wealth, celebration, and spectacle. Made from almonds and sugar—both costly imports—it was often shaped into elaborate sculptures or used in gilded dishes like this one. Serving it fried and topped with gold or saffron was a way to display status and culinary refinement.

The origins of marzipan are widely debated. Some trace it to the Middle East, introduced into Europe via Arab-Spanish cuisine, while others credit Italian apothecaries who sold almond-based pastes as medicinal treats. By the 15th and 16th centuries, it had become a staple of courtly desserts across Italy, Germany, and Iberia.

Research Note: This modern interpretation was informed in part by the Italian historical food blog Cucina Medievale, a trusted source for Italian Renaissance culinary research and one of our favorite reference sites.

Source Access

The original recipe appears in Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s Banchetti, composizioni di vivande et apparecchio generale (Venice, 1549). A digitized facsimile is available via the Internet Archive. (Note: the searchable text may be corrupted, but the PDF version is accurate.)

See all dishes from the 12th Night 2024 feast by browsing the 12th Night tag or checking out this collection.

Related Recipes: You might also enjoy Struffoli: Honeyed Fried Dough, another Renaissance sweet served alongside the marzipan at this feast.

Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

🍯 Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

Honeyed struffoli garnished with candied fruit, served with marzipan cookies on a feast platter

Honeyed Struffoli with Candied Fruit, Served with Marzipan at the 12th Night 2024 Feast
A modern interpretation of Scappi’s 16th-century recipe, these golden morsels were served as part of the appetizer selection.

As part of the 12th Night 2024 feast, guests were greeted with beautiful trays of struffoli — crisp, golden morsels glazed in warm honey and crowned with jeweled candied fruit. This appetizer, adapted from Bartolomeo Scappi’s 16th-century cookbook Opera, captures the festive spirit and elegant artistry of Renaissance banquet tables.

🍽️ Explore the Full Feast: See the complete 12th Night 2024 Menu to discover other historical dishes served during the event.

Scappi was a master cook to Pope Pius V, and his recipes reflect the sophistication of high court cuisine in Italy. These honeyed fritters, served cold, would have dazzled diners with their texture and ornamentation. The original text appears in Libro Quinto, Cap. CXXXV, and can be found in resources like Domenico Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina.

Scappi’s Original Italian (Cap. CXXXV):

Attanfi dieci oua fresche nate di quel giorno, & impastinsicon esse fior di farina alquanto piu liquida della fopradetta, & per fpatio di mezz’horasia ben rimenata sopra la tauola, & poi distendasi essa pasta in ruotoli sottili, come se si volesse fare ciambellette...

...con un coltello si taglierà e i ruotoli a dadi, & tagliati che saranno in gran numero, si lasceranno alquanto rasciugare, & poi con strutto che non sia troppo caldo, si friggeranno, avvertendo che non piglino troppo colore, & con la cocchiara forata cavisino, e si lascino scolare, poi habbisi una cazzuola con mele schiumato che sia ben caldo, & frigghifino in esso mele, dandoli una volta, & subito si cavino, & cavati che saranno, faccinsene castelli, & altre fantafie, & servinofreddi.

🍋 Modern Recipe: Honeyed Struffoli (Serves 8)

This version of struffoli preserves the festive spirit of Scappi's recipe while adapting it for a modern kitchen. These delightful bites can be made ahead and assembled just before serving.

Ingredients

2⅔ cups flour
4½ tbsp unsalted butter
1 tbsp lemon juice
Pinch of salt
2 medium eggs
⅔ cup sugar
Zest of 1 orange
Zest of ½ lemon

For Garnish

1⅓ cups honey
Silver or gold sprinkles
Candied cherries
Candied orange peel

Instructions

In a large bowl, combine flour, softened butter, salt, sugar, citrus zest, lemon juice, and eggs. Mix vigorously by hand until a rough dough forms.
Turn dough onto a floured surface and knead until smooth. Wrap in plastic and refrigerate for at least 2 hours.
After chilling, divide dough into 1 cm wide ropes and roll out. Cut into small pieces, about ⅓ inch in size.
Heat oil to 325°F. Fry pieces in small batches until golden brown. Remove and drain on paper towels.
Warm honey gently in a pan. Add the fried pieces and stir to coat.
Arrange on a platter in a mound or ring. Garnish with sprinkles and candied fruit. Serve at room temperature.

Storage Tip: Fried dough can be made up to 2–3 days in advance. Store in an airtight container and glaze with honey just before serving.

🧾 Translating Scappi: Then vs. Now

Scappi’s original recipe begins with a rich dough made from “ten fresh eggs of the day,” kneaded with fine flour until soft and elastic. Our modern version keeps the egg-based richness, but scales it for today’s kitchens—using two eggs along with butter and citrus for added aroma and softness.

Scappi instructs the cook to roll and cut the dough into “dadi” (dice), which are dried slightly and then fried in strutto (pork fat). We preserve the shape and technique but fry in neutral oil at 325°F for ease and availability. Once cooked, the pieces are tossed in “skimmed honey,” a process mirrored in our version by gently warming the honey and folding the fritters in until glazed. His final flourish—stacking the morsels into “castles and other fancies”—is echoed in our presentation, topped with candied fruit and festive sprinkles.

📚 Inspiration

This recipe was inspired by La Singolare Dottrina di M. Domenico Romoli and Scappi’s Opera, foundational texts in Renaissance culinary tradition.

Try Another Dish from the Feast: Don’t miss our recipe for Tortelletti d’Herba alla Lombarda, a savory herb-filled pasta that accompanied these sweet fritters at the table.

Tags: 12th Night, SCA Feast, Historical Recipes, Renaissance Cooking, Bartolomeo Scappi, Medieval Appetizer, Struffoli, Italian Holiday Food

Tortelletti d’herba alla Lombarda - Herb tortellini in the Lombard Style - Scappi

Tortelletti d’herba alla Lombarda

Herb-Filled Pasta in the Lombard Style — Scappi’s Comforting Winter Classic

This delicate and fragrant dish of tortellini stuffed with sautéed greens, herbs, cheese, and sweet spices originates from Opera dell’Arte del Cucinare (1570), the monumental cookbook by Bartolomeo Scappi. Best known as the personal chef to Pope Pius V, Scappi was a master of both elaborate banquets and refined simplicity — and this recipe, nestled in Chapter 179 of his Secondo Libro, showcases the Lombard love of herbs, butter, and subtly sweet notes.

Scappi and the Rise of Pasta in the Renaissance Kitchen

Bartolomeo Scappi’s Opera (1570) offers one of the most complete windows into the elite cuisine of late Renaissance Italy — and pasta plays a surprisingly prominent role. While modern perceptions associate early Italian cuisine with bread and stews, Scappi details dozens of pasta forms: tortelletti, tagliatelle, lasagne, gnocchi, and more. He provides both fast-day (Lenten) and meat-day variations, often using rich fillings, egg-based doughs, and flavored broths.

Beyond Pasta: Scappi’s Influence on Italian Cuisine

While Scappi is celebrated for cataloging pasta, his legacy goes well beyond noodles. He formalized kitchen hierarchy, seasonal menu planning, and equipment standards that echoed into the 18th century and beyond. His work documents early uses of parchment paper for baking, cooking with a bain-marie, and even proto-refrigeration techniques using snow. He preserved the culinary knowledge of late medieval traditions while also introducing innovations that bridged the gap to modernity. Scappi’s recipes emphasized not only taste but also visual elegance, hygiene, and timing — principles that continue to shape Italian fine dining today.

His chapter on pasta (including Cap. 177–179) reflects the growing popularity of filled pasta in elite households — a sign of culinary sophistication. Doughs were often perfumed with rose water or sugar, and pasta was sometimes served in sweetened broths or dusted with sugar and cinnamon. These dishes bridged the gap between savory and sweet, medicine and indulgence, humble vegetables, and luxurious presentation.

In the Spirit of Romoli: Doctrine and Daily Table

Domenico Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina (“The Singular Doctrine”) outlines not only how to cook but also how to organize and serve elaborate banquets across the seasons. His January banquet — which inspired this feast — features carefully curated combinations of hot and cold, dry and moist, light and heavy, always with an eye toward harmony and digestion. Pasta dishes like tortelletti fit perfectly into this philosophy: gentle on the stomach, warming in the winter months, and suitable for both Lenten and meatless preparations, depending on the broth and sauce.

Romoli, like Scappi, reflects the culinary doctrine of the sixteenth-century Italian elite, where food was viewed as an art, a science, and a means to health, all served in silver.

The Lombard Legacy: Herbs, Pasta, and Humoral Balance

Lombardy, located in northern Italy, was renowned throughout the Renaissance for its refined cuisine and affinity for dairy, herbs, and egg-rich dishes. Dishes like tortelletti d’herba reflect the region’s agricultural abundance and the influence of monastic gardens and courtly kitchens. These small-filled portions of pasta, cousins to ravioli and agnolotti, were considered both elegant and nourishing — ideal for feast days or Lenten fare when meat might be restricted, but the richness was not.

The inclusion of sweet spices like cinnamon and cloves, along with sugar and currants, reveals a broader Renaissance fascination with balancing flavors and creating contrasts on the palate — often underpinned by humoral theory. Warm spices helped balance the “cold” qualities of greens, while cheese and egg yolks added “moist” richness. In this way, tortelletti d’herba were more than delicious — they were medicinally appropriate.

Did You Know?
Common greens used in Renaissance kitchens included bietole (Swiss chard or beet tops), spinaci (spinach), and cavolo nero. Herbs like parsley, mint, marjoram, and savory were prized not just for flavor but for their role in digestive and humoral health.

What Herbs and Greens Were Used in Renaissance Tortelletti?

The phrase herba alla Lombarda in Scappi's recipe refers to a familiar blend of leafy greens and aromatic herbs popular in northern Italy during the Renaissance. Common greens included bietole (chard or beet greens), spinaci (spinach), and sometimes cavolo nero (black cabbage). These were often combined with soft herbs like parsley, marjoram, mint, and savory — herbs prized for their digestive and warming properties, aligning with humoral dietary practices of the time. Regional cooks might adjust the balance of herbs depending on season and occasion: more mint and marjoram in summer, more parsley and chard in winter.

We featured this dish as part of the Arrosto course at our 12th Night 2024 feast, where it was served alongside roast beef, sweet mustard sauce, Turkish squash, and jewel-like Renaissance jelly bites. Helewyse de Birkestad adapted the recipe used in her event, Feste di San Martino, and offers a beautifully balanced winter pasta that pairs greens with Parmesan, currants, and spices.

🦚 Curious about the full feast?
Explore the complete menu from the Flaming Gryphon 12th Night Feast 2024 to see all the dishes and historical inspirations behind this event.

Historical Recipe: Per far minestra di tortelletti d’herba alla Lombarda

Scappi, Opera (1570), Cap. CLXXIX, Secondo Libro

Take beet (chard) and spinach, chop very finely, wash in several waters, and wring dry. Fry them gently in fresh butter, and add a handful of odiferous herbs. Boil briefly, then drain and combine the mixture in a glazed earthen or tinned copper pot. Add grated Parmesan and soft cheese, with pepper, cinnamon, cloves, saffron, currants, and enough raw egg to bind. If too soft, add breadcrumbs; if too firm, more butter. Make pasta as described in Chapter 177, shape small or large tortelletti, boil in meat broth, and serve with cheese, sugar, and cinnamon on top.

Modern Redaction (Adapted by Helewyse de Birkestad)

Pasta Dough

4 cups all-purpose flour
Pinch of salt
1 tbsp butter, melted
1 tbsp sugar
1 tbsp rosewater
~1¼ cups warm water (as needed)

Filling

1 bunch Swiss chard
1 bunch spinach
Small handful each: parsley, mint, marjoram
15 oz ricotta
6 oz Parmesan (grated)
1–2 eggs
1 oz currants
Salt, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and saffron to taste

Instructions

Make the Dough: Combine flour, salt, sugar, melted butter, and rosewater. Mix with warm water to form a smooth dough. Knead well, then rest covered for 30 minutes.
Prepare the Filling: Wash and chop the greens and herbs. Sauté in butter until wilted. Let cool, then pulse in a food processor with cheeses, eggs, spices, and currants until a firm but scoopable filling forms.
Shape the Tortelletti: Roll pasta thin (second-to-last setting on a hand-cranked machine). Cut into squares or circles. Place small scoops of filling, fold and seal. Shape into tortelletti.
Cook: Boil in salted water (or broth) until they float — about 5 minutes. Drain and serve hot.
To Serve: Top with a light dusting of grated cheese, cinnamon, and sugar for an authentic Renaissance finish.

Regional Variations Across Italy

Though Scappi’s version is firmly rooted in Lombardy, filled herb pastas appear across Italy with regional twists. In Emilia‑Romagna, tortelli di erbette are filled with greens and ricotta, often served with sage‑butter. Tuscany offers tortelli maremmani, sometimes incorporating wild greens and nutmeg. Liguria features pansoti made with preboggion (a traditional wild herb mix) and walnut sauce. Each variant celebrates local herbs and fillings while preserving the form’s essential comfort and seasonality.

Notes from the Feast Table

At 12th Night 2024, these tortelletti were part of the Arrosto course with:

Spit-roasted beef (brisket)
Turkish squash dishes
Sweet mustard sauce
Gelo in bocconcini di più colori (jelly in small bites)

Want More from This Feast?

This recipe is just one part of our 12th Night 2024 Renaissance Feast, inspired by Scappi, Romoli, and the lavish January banquets of Renaissance Italy.

To see the full event menu and explore additional recipes as they’re released, visit the official feast page:

Flaming Gryphon 12th Night 2024 Feast Menu.

Looking for printable cards or a bundled feast pack? Support the project on Ko-fi and stay tuned for downloads!

Potash: The Ashes That Raised a Nation

Long before baking powder revolutionized home kitchens, early American bakers demonstrated their ingenuity by using potash—an alkaline residue from wood ash—as a leavening agent. Extracted from hearth ashes, potash enabled cooks to prepare lighter breads and cakes, showcasing their resourcefulness before the advent of commercial yeast or baking soda.

This article builds on our previous piece ‘From Ashes to Antlers’ , which explored the historical use of various natural materials in early American kitchens. Let's take a closer look at potash's role in early American kitchens.

What Is Potash?

Early American cooks made potash (potassium carbonate) by soaking hardwood ashes in water to create lye, then boiling the liquid until it yielded a solid alkaline salt. The name "potash" comes from this process of boiling ashes in pots.

Lye Safety and Myths

Is lye dangerous? In concentrated form, yes. Historical potash lye was milder but still required care.

Safe to eat? Yes, when neutralized adequately with acid. The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide.

Make it today? It's possible, but use gloves and eye protection.

Myth: "Lye is poison." → Truth: It was a standard kitchen tool for soap, pretzels, and baking.

The Chemistry of Potash Leavening

Potash requires an acid (such as molasses or sour milk) to create carbon dioxide, which helps lift the dough. This simple reaction laid the foundation for early quick breads.

Source: Hardwood ash
Type: Potassium carbonate
Reaction: Potash + Acid → CO₂ → Rise

What Is Pearl Ash?

Pearl ash is refined potash. Makers dissolved potash in water, filtered it, and evaporated the solution to create a whiter, cleaner salt ideal for baking delicate cakes.

Potash: Crude wood ash residue
Pearl Ash: Refined, purified potash
Used in: Gingerbread, sponge cake, biscuits

Historic Use in Recipes

Amelia Simmons’ American Cookery (1796) frequently used pearl ash with acidic ingredients. Below is a modern version of her gingerbread recipe.

Gingerbread with Pearl Ash

1 cup molasses
1/2 cup sour cream or buttermilk
1 tsp pearl ash (or baking soda)
1 tbsp ground ginger
2.5–3 cups flour

Instructions: Mix pearl ash with sour cream. Stir in molasses and ginger. Add flour gradually. Bake at 350°F for 20–25 minutes.

Other Recipes Using Potash

Beyond gingerbread, early American bakers showcased the versatility of potash in a variety of recipes where mild sweetness and dense structure were welcome. Typical dishes included molasses cakes, Johnnycakes (cornmeal flatbreads), spice biscuits, and hoecakes. These recipes often relied on potash for rise when eggs were scarce or sour milk was abundant. Amelia Simmons and other early cookbooks also mention "loaf cakes" and "crackers" leavened with potash or pearl ash, highlighting its wide range of uses.

From Hearth to Pantry: How Baking Powder Changed Everything

The introduction of baking powder in the mid-19th century marked a significant turning point in the history of baking. Potash-leavened goods tend to have a slightly soapy or alkaline note if not carefully balanced with acid. The texture was often denser, with a subtle chewiness, especially in quick breads and cakes. Baking powder, by contrast, offered a more neutral flavor and consistently resulted in a lighter crumb. It allowed bakers to move away from strong molasses and buttermilk flavors used to balance potash, resulting in the sweeter, fluffier cakes familiar today.

Regional Variations in Potash Use

The use of potash varied across the colonies. In the Northeast and Appalachian regions, where hardwood forests were abundant and molasses was a common sweetener, potash remained in use longer—especially among rural homesteads. In German- and Dutch-influenced areas like Pennsylvania, cooks developed refined versions of traditional baked goods (such as honey cakes and lebkuchen) using pearl ash. Southern cooks were more likely to switch earlier to baking soda and sour milk once commercial supply chains improved.

Comparison of Leaveners

Leavener	Source	Needs Acid?	Use	Flavor	Consistency
Potash	Wood ash	Yes	Breads	Alkaline	Unrefined
Pearl Ash	Refined potash	Yes	Cakes	Mild	Reliable
Baking Powder	Commercial blend	No	All baking	Neutral	Very consistent

Griddle Cakes Before Johnnycakes: A Historical Comparison

Medieval Flat Cakes (14th–15th c.)

Source: Le Ménagier de Paris (1393)
Typical Ingredients: Wheat flour, milk or water, egg (optional)
Cooking Method: Griddled on a flat iron, stone, or in a pan with fat

“Make a paste with white flour and warm water... roll thin and bake on the iron.”

These cakes were simple and unleavened, sometimes brushed with fat or sprinkled with sugar. Texture would be dense and chewy. A modern interpretation uses wheat flour and warm water to form a thick dough, rolled or patted thin, then cooked on a dry or greased skillet.

Early Modern Pancakes (16th c.)

Source: A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye (c. 1557)
Typical Ingredients: White flour, eggs, milk or ale/wine, spices
Cooking Method: Fried on a griddle or pan with butter/lard

“To make pancakes. Take two or three eggs, a dish of flour, and half a pint of milk. Beat them together and fry them in butter.”

These pancakes were thinner, lighter, and crispier—thanks to the addition of eggs and sometimes alcohol. A modern version might whisk 2 eggs, 1 cup flour, and ½ cup ale or milk, then fry in a buttered pan until golden.

Colonial Johnnycakes (17th–18th c.)

Source: Indigenous North American cooking, adapted by colonists
Typical Ingredients: Cornmeal, water or milk, salt, fat or molasses
Optional Leavening: Potash or pearl ash
Cooking Method: Griddled, stone-baked, or pan-fried

“Indian meal, scalded, mixed with salt, milk, or cream, and baked on a griddle or board.” — Amelia Simmons, 1796

Colonial johnnycakes often used hot water to soften cornmeal, sometimes with milk or sweeteners. When leavened with potash, they developed a slightly fluffy interior with a crisp outer crust.

Summary: Griddle Cake Evolution

Period	Dish	Grain Base	Leavening	Fat Used	Texture	Region
14th c.	Iron cakes / wafers	Wheat	None	None or lard	Dense, flat	France, England
16th c.	Pancakes	Wheat	Eggs	Butter/lard	Thin, crisp	England
17th–18th c.	Johnnycakes	Cornmeal	None or potash	Drippings or none	Crisp outside, tender inside	Colonial America

Timeline of Leavening

Pre-1600s: Natural fermentation
1600s–1700s: Potash use in breads
1796: Pearl ash in American Cookery
1830s: Hartshorn for cookies
1850s: Commercial baking powders introduced
1880s+: Double-acting powders dominate

Where to Find Historical Leaveners Today

If you're interested in experimenting with historic recipes, you can still obtain several early leavening agents with care. Be sure to use only food-grade versions, and always follow recipes that include appropriate acidic ingredients when working with alkaline leaveners like potash or pearl ash.

Reputable Sources

Pearl Ash (Food-grade Potassium Carbonate):
- Lehman's: Carries pearl ash suitable for reenactment or heritage baking
- Amazon: Search for “potassium carbonate, food-grade” (check vendor reviews)
Hartshorn (Ammonium Carbonate):
- King Arthur Baking: Sold as “Baker’s Ammonia”
- Amazon: Look for “Baker’s Ammonia” or “Hartshorn” (food-grade only)
Potash (Historical or DIY):
- True culinary-grade historical potash is rare. For educational or reenactment use, you can try making it at home from hardwood ashes.
- Permies Forum Guide: Practical advice on making your own potash safely

⚠️ Note: Commercial potash sold for fertilizer or soapmaking is not food-safe. Always verify the product is labeled for culinary use before baking.

To explore more, read From Ashes to Antlers.

More Forgotten Leaveners
Discover hartshorn and other historic techniques in our full guide.

Browse all leavening articles here.

Potash & Pearl Ash: The Alkaline Origins of American Baking

Front cover and title page scans from Amelia Simmons’s American Cookery (1796)

From Ash to Rise: Potash, Pearl Ash, and the First American Chemical Leaveners

Before commercial baking powder revolutionized the kitchen, early bakers reached for something far more rustic: ashes. Specifically, they utilized the lye-rich remnants of burned hardwood to produce potash and, later, its refined cousin, pearl ash. These alkaline salts, when combined with acidic ingredients, acted as the first chemical leaveners of early American and European baking.

What is Potash?

Potash, or potassium carbonate, is derived from the ashes of burned hardwood. Traditionally, early cooks would soak wood ash in water, extract the resulting lye, and boil off the liquid to concentrate the alkaline residue. The name "pot ash" originates from the iron pots historically used during this production process.

Pearl Ash: The Cleaner Leavener

Pearl ash is a purified form of potash. The refinement process involved dissolving crude potash in water, allowing the insoluble sediment to settle, then filtering and gently evaporating the solution until white crystals formed. This process created a cleaner, more consistent leavening agent preferred for baking cakes and biscuits.

How Alkaline Leavening Works

Neither potash nor pearl ash works alone. They need an acidic partner to trigger a chemical reaction that produces carbon dioxide gas. This gas forms bubbles in batters and doughs, helping them rise and achieve a light texture.

Potash: Stronger, more caustic, less refined — best used with caution or in soapmaking.
Pearl Ash: More purified, milder, and food safe — suitable for cakes, biscuits, and cookies.

How Does It Compare to Hartshorn?

Hartshorn, or ammonium carbonate, differs in that it does not require an acid to activate. It's ideal for crisp cookies like Springerle, where dryness is key. In contrast, potash-based leaveners must be carefully balanced with acidic components, or the resulting bake may carry an unpleasant alkaline flavor. Potash typically found its place in softer quick breads and early cakes.

📚 Curious about hartshorn? Click here to explore how bakers used ammonium carbonate before baking soda became common.

Refining Potash into Pearl Ash

Pearl ash isn’t just cleaner potash—it’s the result of a deliberate purification process. Historically, makers dissolved crude potash in water, allowed insoluble impurities to settle out, then filtered and gently evaporated the liquid until white crystals formed. This recrystallized form offered better predictability and reduced off-flavors in baked goods.

Common Acidic Pairings in Historical Recipes

Buttermilk or clabbered milk
Molasses (commonly used in gingerbreads)
Vinegar or sour wine
Apple cider or citrus juice

Historical Note: Gingerbread with Pearl Ash

The earliest American-published cookbook, American Cookery by Amelia Simmons (1796), includes several recipes calling for pearl ash as a leavening agent. One gingerbread variant reads:

“Gingerbread Cakes” – One quart of molasses, one pound of sugar, three quarters of a pound of shortening, one cup of sour milk, four teaspoons pearl ash, four tablespoons ginger, cinnamon and cloves to taste, and as much flour as will make it roll out.

— Amelia Simmons, American Cookery (1796)

Where to Find Potash or Pearl Ash Today

Potash: You can make it at home from hardwood ashes, but for safety and consistency, it's best sourced as food-grade potassium carbonate from specialty chemical suppliers or soapmaking shops (e.g., Bulk Apothecary, The Lye Guy).
Pearl Ash: Much harder to find today, but chemically similar results can be achieved with food-grade potassium carbonate or by using baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) in a modern adaptation.

Example: Gingerbread with Pearl Ash (1796)

Amelia Simmons’s American Cookery (1796) features several gingerbread cookie recipes that call for pearl ash—a purified form of potash—dissolved in milk or water. This marks one of the earliest printed uses of a chemical leavener in American baking. 🧁

View the original 1796 scans, or check the Smithsonian & American Heritage notes on Simmons's innovations :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2}.

Historical Example: Gingerbread with Pearl Ash

Adapted from late 18th-century sources:

2 cups flour
1 cup molasses
1/4 cup butter, melted
1 tsp pearl ash dissolved in 1 tbsp vinegar
1 tsp ginger
1/2 tsp cinnamon
Optional: cloves or nutmeg

Mix molasses, butter, and spices.
Add pearl ash mixture.
Stir in flour gradually to form a dough.
Drop by spoonful or roll and cut into rounds.
Bake at 350°F for 10–12 minutes.

📜 Want to learn more about potash and pearl ash? Click here to explore how ashes became America’s first chemical leaveners.

The Rise of Baking Powder

The arrival of commercial baking powder made baking more accessible. Unlike potash or pearl ash, it included both alkaline and acidic components, eliminating the guesswork. Home cooks no longer needed to rely on tricky ratios or worry about acidic pairings—baking became easier, faster, and more reliable. This convenience marked the end of Pearl Ash’s reign in the kitchen.

Other Forgotten Leaveners

Before modern yeast and chemical leaveners, a variety of traditional techniques helped baked goods to rise

Ale barm: Foam from fermenting beer, used in breads and cakes before commercial yeast.
Egg leavening: Beaten egg whites or whole eggs incorporated air, helping cakes and sponges rise naturally.
Sack starters: Fermented mixtures using sack (fortified wine) and flour as makeshift yeast.

Quick Comparison: Forgotten Alkaline Leaveners

Leavener	Source	Needs Acid?	Best Used In
Potash	Boiled wood ash	Yes	Quick breads, early cakes
Pearl Ash	Purified potash	Yes	Gingerbread, sponge cake
Hartshorn	Distilled antlers or hooves	No	Crisp cookies, Springerle

Weekend Spotlight

Resources for Cooks & Feast Planners

This week we’re highlighting four resource pages you may have missed — practical tools and cultural insights that sit behind many of our recipes and feasts. Bookmark these for your kitchen or next event!

🌿 Historical Herbal & Culinary Resources – Newly updated with primary sources like Forme of Cury, Harleian MS. 279, Scappi, and Parkinson, plus modern scholarly works. Now with quick “jump to” links for easy browsing.
⚖️ Apothecary Weights & Measures – Freshly revised with a quick converter, symbol copy-buttons, and corrected scruple/dram values. A must-have reference for historic medicine and recipes.
🎨 The Importance of Color in the Middle Ages – A fascinating look at symbolism in food and feast presentation, from black for mourning to white for purity. Perfect context for “white dishes” and colorful menus.
🍽 Arranging the Feast – How medieval dietary theory shaped the order of courses, and how you can apply the same logic to modern menu planning. A helpful guide for feast stewards and curious cooks alike.