A Dynere of Flesche — John Russell’s Medieval Feast and the Logic of Digestion

Roasted peacock served “re-plumed,” a classic showpiece in late-medieval banquets. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Introduction

In the mid-fifteenth century, court official John Russell compiled the Boke of Nurture (Harley MS 4011), a manual of etiquette, service, and feasting. Among its most intriguing passages is “A Dynere of Flesche”—a model feast for a flesh day. At first glance it reads like excess: swan, peacock, venison, custards, jellies, fritters, sotelties. But beneath the display lies clear order, guided by humoral theory and the theory of digestion.

• Humoral theory:

• Foods are classified hot/cold, moist/dry.
• The goal was balance — so heavy/dry meats might be paired with moist/sweet sauces, or cooling jellies follow heating roasts.

The Ideal Temperament

Humoral theory didn’t just classify food — it also described people. The ideal man, according to Galenic medicine, was hot and moist: warm in spirit, strong in digestion, balanced in humors. Too much heat could cause choler (anger, fevers); too much cold led to melancholy. Feasts like Russell’s were arranged to steer everyone—young, old, male, female—toward this balanced, “ideal” state after eating.

• Theory of Digestion (stomach as a fireplace model):

  • Light, quick-digesting foods first (whet the appetite, “open the stomach”).

  • Heavy meats mid-meal (need the appetite at full flame).

  • Cooling or binding foods at the end (to “close the stomach” and aid digestion).

  • Spices and hippocras (spiced wine) seal the stomach and prevent putrefaction.

Feasting, Status, and Seasonality

Russell’s menu was a model feast—aspirational and didactic. It reflected both status and medical order:

• Luxury foods: swan, peacock, crane, bustard, sea bream inland, imported sugar, almonds, and rice.
• Sotelties: allegorical sugar or pastry sculptures, more about piety and performance than eating.
• Hierarchy: the high table saw the full spread; lower tables ate simpler portions.
• Seasonality: autumn/winter hunting game + preserved foods (brawn, baked quinces, hippocras). Likely a winter festival setting—Christmas or Twelfth Night.

The Logic of the Courses

How Many Did This Feed?

Russell never specifies numbers. Most scholars agree that menus like this modeled an ideal high-table feast, not the full hall of 200+ diners. Lower tables would have received simpler fare, with servants plainer still. The “Dynere of Flesche” was about display and order at the top table, not uniform abundance.

First Course: Awakening the Appetite

The feast begins with brawn of boar with mustard. Preserved brawn (salted/pressed) was hot/dry, paired with mustard (also hot/dry) to stimulate appetite. Then came pottages of herbs, spice, and wine (warm, moist, aromatic), followed by staples—beef and mutton, heavy and dry but softened by sauces. Showpieces—pheasant and swan with chawdron sauce, capons, pig, venison bake—balanced humors by variety. The course lifted with leches and fritters, hot/oily appetite stimulants, and paused with a sotelty of the Annunciation.

Why pork first?

Not a roast, but salted/pressed boar. Preservation shifted its qualities hotter/drier. With mustard, it worked as an appetite-opener and prestige symbol.

Beef & mutton early?

Normally heavy, but softened in pottage. Their presence early also reinforced abundance—English tables expected them as staples.

Swan with chawdron

Swan was tough and hot/dry. Prestige demanded its early appearance. Chawdron (entrails sauce) moistened and balanced the dish.

Second Course: Heaviest Roasts & Entremets

The second course starts gently with blancmanger (chicken and almond, moist and white) and jellies (cooling, clarifying). Then came the heaviest fare: venison, kid, fawn, coney, bustard, stork, crane, peacock, heron. These were dry/hot meats, demanding the stomach’s “strongest fire.”

Between them: entremets—custards, pastries, sweet leches—moist refreshers, palate cleansers, and spectacles. A fritter revived appetite, and an angelic sotelty provided allegory and pause.

What are Entremets?

“Between-dishes” that lighten the palate after heavy roasts. Could be custards, jellies, fritters, or allegories. They refreshed digestion and dazzled guests.

Sea bream among roasts?

Fish are cooling and moist, but sea bream inland was a rarity. Its placement showed luxury and variety, more than medical logic.

Fritters everywhere

Appearing in every course, fritters weren’t just sweets. Fried foods (hot/dry) re-stimulated appetite, acting like edible palate cleansers.

Third Course: Stepping Down

Cream of almonds and mawmany were restorative and nourishing. Smaller roasts—curlews, snipes, quails, sparrows—replaced great birds. Moist/cooling dishes returned: perch in jelly, crayfish. Quinces baked (astringent) helped close digestion, alongside sage fritters and spiced leches. A Magi sotelty provided solemn close.

Quinces as Closers

Medieval medical texts praised quinces for their astringency. Baked or stewed, they were thought to “bind the stomach” and prevent excess humors. Their placement late in Russell’s menu follows regimen advice: astringent fruit near the end ensured the feast ended in balance.

Finale: Issue & Sendoff

The issue de table included pippins (apples) with caraway comfits, custard (blaunderelle), wafers, and hippocras. Apples (cold/dry) restrained excess; caraway (hot/dry) dispelled wind; hippocras (spiced wine) “sealed” the stomach.

Apples & Caraway

Bartholomaeus Anglicus: apples “close the stomach and make good digestion.” Andrew Boorde: “rawe apples do stoppe the bely, and do coole a man.” Gerard: caraway comfits “are taken for the winde, and against the collick.” Together: a classic period pairing, served raw with candied spice.

Sotelties

These edible allegories (Annunciation, angels, Magi) weren’t about digestion. They refreshed the spirit and gave rhythm between heavy dishes.

Costly Showpieces

Some dishes weren’t about flavor at all. Peacock and swan were tough and gamey, yet served re-feathered as symbols of prestige. Sea bream inland was a logistical feat, showing the household’s reach. Sugar jellies and sotelties consumed expensive imports, functioning as edible theater. These dishes were declarations of wealth and power as much as food.

Overall Temperament by Course

Hot Cold Moist Dry Astringent

Course / Stage	Overall Temperament	Why this net effect?
First Course	Hot Dry (+Moist from pottages)	Opens with mustard & preserved brawn (hot/dry stimulants), then warm/moist pottages; heavy meats appear early but are sauced. Net effect = warming/activating with a slight dry edge to “open the stomach.”
Second Course	Hot Dry (+ moderated by Moist entremets)	Heaviest roasts (venison, crane, peacock) are hot/dry at peak digestion; custards/jellies (entremets) punctuate to moisten/refresh. Net effect = the feast’s hottest/driest point, tempered between platters.
Third Course	Moist Cool (+ Astringent close)	Steps down with smaller birds and moist/cooling fish in jelly; baked quinces add astringency to begin closure; sage fritters give brief warmth without flipping the net trend.
Finale (Issue & Boute-hors)	Cool Dry → sealed by HotDry (hippocras)	Raw apples + caraway comfits = cool/dry & wind-dispelling; wafers are light/dry. Final seal with hippocras (hot/dry) “closes the stomach” and guards against putrefaction.

Show SCA stages with temperament

SCA Stage	Temperament	Notes
On Table / Entrance	HotDry	Mustard & brawn stimulate and announce status.
Pottages & Gentle Dishes	MoistWarm	Opens and soothes the stomach.
Great Roasts	HotDry	Peak heat/dryness; serve when digestion is strongest.
Entremets	MoistCool	Palate/digestion refreshers between roasts.
Lighter Birds & Fish	MoistCool	Step-down phase toward closure.
Dessert / Fruit	Astringent	Begins the “binding” close (quinces, etc.).
Issue	CoolDry	Raw apples + comfits; wafers light and crisp.
Boute-hors	HotDry	Hippocras seals the stomach.

Feast Planning with Russell’s Menu

For SCA feast planners, Russell’s feast maps neatly into modern service frameworks:

Downloadable Resources:

• Russell’s Feast Framework (Filled Example)
• Blank Feast Planning Template

Stage	Dishes from Russell’s Menu	Digestive Role
On Table / Entrance	Mustard & brawn	Stimulates appetite, prestige
Pottages	Pottage, blancmanger, jellies	Gentle starters, open stomach
Great Roasts	Beef, mutton, venison, swan, peacock, bustard, crane, etc.	Heaviest, driest meats; mid-digestion
Entremets	Custards, pastries, fritters, sotelties	Palate refreshers, visual allegories
Lighter Birds & Fish	Curlew, quail, perch in jelly, crayfish	Moist/cooling, easier to digest
Dessert / Fruit	Quinces baked, sage fritters	Astringent closure, sharpen digestion
Issue	Apples with caraway, wafers	Refresh and bind, dispel wind
Boute-hors	Hippocras	Spiced wine to seal digestion

Mythbusting Russell’s Feast

• “Feasts were chaotic.” ❌ They followed medical choreography.
• “Everyone ate the same food.” ❌ Hierarchy dictated portions.
• “Peacock and swan were delicacies.” ❌ They were tough; value lay in spectacle.
• “Sugar was common.” ❌ It was a costly luxury spice.
• “Fritters were desserts only.” ❌ They appear in every course as stimulants.
• “Fruit was always cooked.” ❌ The pippins at issue were raw, paired with comfits.

✅ Dos & ❌ Don’ts by Course

• First Course
  ✅ Pair heavy meats with moist dishes (pottage, sauce)
  ❌ Don’t open with multiple cold/moist foods — they dull appetite
• Second Course
  ✅ Interleave entremets between heavy roasts
  ❌ Don’t serve only hot/dry roasts back-to-back — digestion overload
• Third Course
  ✅ Use cooling/moist dishes (fish, almond cream) to “calm the stomach”
  ❌ Don’t drop in new hot/dry meats here — it reverses the descent
• Finale
  ✅ Always end with an astringent fruit + spiced closer
  ❌ Don’t pile sweets without balance — needs closure to “seal digestion”

Conclusion

Russell’s Dynere of Flesche shows that medieval dining was deliberate: humoral balance, digestive order, spectacle, and hierarchy all interlaced. What seems like excess was careful choreography. For modern readers—and especially SCA feast stewards—it offers both inspiration and a reminder: a medieval feast was an art of health and performance.

Why this matters today: Russell’s feast reminds us that medieval banquets were not chaotic indulgence, but carefully balanced systems of health, status, and art. It’s a reminder that food has always been about more than eating—it shapes identity, power, and performance at the table.

Glossary: a few terms

• Chawdron: rich sauce of entrails/offal.
• Entremets: “between-dishes” (light/spectacular interludes).
• Sotelty: edible allegory/sculpture, more for the eyes than the stomach.
• Issue de table: light closing bites after courses.
• Boute-hors: sendoff drink(s), e.g., hippocras.

Source: John Russell, Boke of Nurture, Harleian MS 4011, fol. 171 (c. 1460).

Further reading

• Flandrin & Montanari (eds.), Food: A Culinary History — feast structure.
• Hieatt & Butler (eds.), Curye on Inglysch — Middle English recipes.
• Adamson, Food in Medieval Times — ingredients, trade, status.

Fungi di Monte – Renaissance Italian Mushrooms from Scappi (1570)

Fungi di Monte – Renaissance Mountain Mushrooms

“The Feast in the House of Levi” (detail), Paolo Veronese. Used here as period context for a Renaissance savory pie.

Sources: Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera dell’arte del cucinare, 1570 (Book II, cap. 193); Odile Redon, Françoise Sabban, Silvano Serventi, The Medieval Kitchen, 1998.

Mushrooms were a popular ingredient in Renaissance Italy, eaten in fast-day dishes and served alongside roasted meats. This recipe for Fungi di Monte (“mushrooms of the mountain”) comes to us from Bartolomeo Scappi’s monumental 1570 Opera. Redon adapts it into a clean, modern version while preserving its essential spicing and method.

Historic Recipe (Scappi, 1570)

Per cuocere funghi di monte in più modi. Dopo che saranno ben nettati, si cuociano in acqua calda, & si lascino scolare; poi si facciano soffriggere con cipolla trita, olio, sale, pepe, canella, garofali, & altre buone spetiarie. Si possono anco cuocere con burro fresco, & cacio parmigiano, & similmente si possono friggere in pastello.

Translation

To cook mountain mushrooms in several ways. After they are well cleaned, cook them in hot water and let them drain; then fry them with chopped onion, oil, salt, pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and other good spices. They may also be cooked with fresh butter and Parmesan cheese, and likewise they may be fried in batter.

Vegetarian & Vegan Pie Crusts for Historical Recipes: A Practical Guide

 Vegetarian & Vegan Pie Crusts for Historical Recipes: A Practical Guide

Whether you're preparing a Lenten feast, accommodating modern dietary restrictions, or simply looking for a period-adjacent alternative to lard and suet, this guide offers reliable crust options for historical pies and tarts. While medieval and early modern sources often rely on animal fat for pastry coffins, cooks would have adapted as needed—especially on no-flesh days. These vegetarian and vegan-friendly options draw inspiration from that adaptability while meeting modern expectations for taste, texture, and practicality.

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🕯️ Pastry in Period: What the Sources Say

In medieval and Renaissance cookery, the pie crust—often referred to as a "coffin"—served multiple roles: cooking vessel, storage container, and edible wrapping. Crusts could be thick and structural (especially for meat pies), or more refined and flaky for sweet dishes and subtlety presentations.

While many crusts were made using lard, suet, or animal drippings, there are examples of simpler pastes using oil, butter, or no fat at all—especially in dishes served during Lent or on Fridays, when meat (and by extension, animal products) was restricted. Butter-based pastes are more common in late period and early printed cookbooks, such as Robert May’s The Accomplisht Cook (1660).

Unfortunately, few cookbooks from the SCA period (pre-1600) offer detailed pastry ratios. Recipes tend to say things like “make paste of fine flour and water” or “take butter and yolks to make a tender crust.” This vagueness gives us flexibility—but also calls for informed interpretation.

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🥧 Option 1: Ovo-Lacto Vegetarian Pie Paste

Suitable for late period recipes, meatless feasts, and sweet or savory pies.

Ingredients:

• 2½ cups flour (unbleached all-purpose or a blend with spelt for a nuttier flavor)

• ½ tsp salt

• ½ cup cold butter, cut into cubes

• ¼–½ cup cold water

• Optional: 1 tsp cider vinegar or rosewater/orange flower water for structure and aroma

Method:

1. Mix flour and salt in a bowl.

2. Cut in cold butter until the mixture resembles breadcrumbs.

3. Slowly add water (and optional flavoring) until dough comes together.

4. Chill for 30 minutes before rolling out.

Notes:

• This crust bakes to a tender, slightly flaky finish.

• Ideal for fruit pies, herb tarts, and vegetarian coffins.

• Can be egg-enriched (common in late Tudor and early Stuart crusts).

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🌱 Option 2: Vegan-Friendly Oil-Based Crust

Inspired by fasting-day pastes and Mediterranean-style doughs.

Ingredients:

• 2½ cups flour

• ½ tsp salt

• ½ cup neutral oil (sunflower, light olive oil, or refined coconut oil)

• ¼–½ cup cold water

Method:

1. Combine flour and salt in a large bowl.

2. Add oil and stir until evenly coated.

3. Gradually add water until the dough just comes together.

4. Form into a ball, wrap, and chill before use.

Notes:

• Produces a firm, short pastry—excellent for hand pies or savory coffins.

• Less flaky than butter crusts but still satisfying and historically plausible.

• Can be flavored with herbs, wine, or citrus zest.

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🧾 When to Use These Crusts

Use these pastry options when:

• You’re serving a Friday or Lenten menu

• Cooking for vegetarians or vegans at an SCA event

• Making fruit pies, greens tarts, or dairy-based fillings without meat

• Looking for a make-ahead crust that holds well at room temperature

These crusts are particularly well-suited to dishes like:

• Fridayes Pye

• Fruit or nut tarts

• Cheese and herb galettes

• Root vegetable pies or savory Lenten coffins

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🧁 Sample Recipes & Pairings

These crusts work beautifully in a wide range of dishes. Here are a few examples where you can put them to delicious use:

• Medieval Dessert Trio of Tarts: Apple, cherry, and almond tarts ideal for a final course or sweet subtlety.

• Fridayes Pye: A no-flesh tart with apples, greens, and raisins—a perfect Friday or Lent-friendly offering.

• To Make a Peasecod Dish in Puff Paste Two Ways: A sweet almond-based pastry dish, styled like peasecods—perfect for recreating late period subtleties or dessert courses.

🏺 Period-Inspired Flavor Variations

If you'd like to add a little extra flair that feels appropriate to the time:

• Use orange flower water or rosewater in place of some water

• Blend in a little ground almond for richer pastes

• Sprinkle the crust with sugar and cinnamon for fruit pies

• Add saffron-infused water for a golden hue

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Cold Roast Chicken with Sauce Options – Collegium Lunch Tavern (2016)

 Cold Roast Chicken with Sauce Options – Collegium Lunch Tavern (2016)

As part of the 2016 Collegium Lunch Fundraiser Tavern, this cold roast chicken dish provided a reliable, prep-ahead protein that paired beautifully with multiple historical sauce options. It was designed for efficient service, minimal equipment, and flexible flavor pairings for a large crowd.

While the chicken itself was seasoned simply with salt, pepper, olive oil, and garlic and roasted at 350°F, the real variety came from the sauces served alongside it. Each guest could choose from three distinct historical condiments—each with unique flavor profiles suited to different palates.

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Chicken Preparation (Basic)

• Chicken seasoned with salt, pepper, garlic, and olive oil

• Roasted at 350°F until cooked through

• Served cold, sliced, or whole depending on setting

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White Garlic Sauce

A rich, nut-based sauce using almonds, broth, and breadcrumbs.

Ingredients:

• 2–3 garlic cloves, crushed

• ½ cup slivered almonds

• 2 tbsp breadcrumbs

• 1–2 cups chicken broth

Instructions: Combine all ingredients in a blender or food processor and grind until smooth. Strain through a sieve for better texture. Serve cold.

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Cold Sage Sauce

Herb-forward and lightly spiced, this green sauce offers an earthier option.

Ingredients:

• 1 cup fresh parsley

• 1 cup fresh sage

• 1 cup hot chicken broth or bouillon

• ¼ cup white wine vinegar

• 2 hard-boiled egg yolks (optional; omit for simpler version)

• ½ tsp salt

• ½ tsp ginger

• ¼ tsp grains of paradise or cinnamon

• 2 slices white bread, crusts removed

Instructions: Blend parsley and sage with hot broth. Separately mash egg yolks with vinegar and combine. Add spices and slowly incorporate bread until desired thickness. Serve cool.

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Must Sauce

A sweet-tart grape-based sauce with warming spices.

Ingredients:

• 1 cup grape juice concentrate

• ¼ to ½ cup water

• ½–1 tsp cinnamon

• ¼ tsp ginger

• 1 egg, beaten

• 1 tbsp honey

• ½ tsp grains of paradise

Instructions: Heat juice and water, add spices, and bring to a simmer. Temper in egg, then stir to thicken. Add honey and simmer gently. Serve chilled.

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Historical Notes

While the exact manuscript sources for these sauces are unclear, they reflect ingredients and methods consistent with late medieval and early modern English cookery. Almond-thickened garlic sauces, herb purées with vinegar, and spiced must-based condiments appear in sources such as The Forme of Cury, A Book of Cookrye (1591), and similar compilations.

Serving Notes

Each sauce was prepared the day before the event and held well overnight in sealed containers. Guests appreciated the variety and the ability to customize their plates. These sauces can also be paired with pork, veal, or vegetables depending on the setting.

Pork Pie with Mustard – William Rabisha (1682)

Pork Pie with Mustard – William Rabisha (1682)

This hearty, spice-layered pork pie was served at the Collegium Lunch Fundraiser Tavern in 2016 as the primary meat offering. Designed for easy transport, room-temperature service, and strong period flavor, this pie drew inspiration from The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected by William Rabisha (1682). Though technically outside the pre-1600 SCA period, Rabisha’s work reflects culinary techniques and seasonings in use during the Elizabethan and early Stuart period—and is commonly used by feast cooks for "late period" interpretations.

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Original Recipe (Historical Source)

“Take a Loin of Pork and bone it, and cut thereof into thin collops beaten with the clever... season your Pork with pepper, salt, and minces sage... season your Veal with cloves, mace, nutmeg and minced Thyme... then a laying of pork... and then a laying of your veal... so continue... beat it well into a body, put it in your coffin... bake it: when it is cold, fill it with clarified butter.”
— William Rabisha, The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected (1682)

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Modern Interpretation

Yields one 9-inch double crust pie

Ingredients:

• 1 lb pork loin, boned and trimmed of fat

• 2 egg yolks

• 1/8 tsp pepper

• 1/2 tsp salt (divided)

• 1/4 tsp sage

• 1/4 tsp thyme

• 1/8 tsp mace

• 1/4 tsp nutmeg

• 1/8 tsp ground cloves

• 3 tbsp butter, diced

• 2 pie shells (top and bottom crusts)

Instructions:

1. Slice the pork as thinly as possible.

2. Mix half the pork with pepper, sage, thyme, 1 egg yolk, and 1/4 tsp salt.

3. Mix the remaining pork with mace, nutmeg, cloves, 1 egg yolk, and 1/4 tsp salt.

4. Layer seasoned pork into the pie shell, alternating between the two mixtures.

5. Dot each layer with butter.

6. Seal the pie with the top crust, crimp edges, and vent.

7. Bake at 450°F for 20 minutes, then reduce heat to 350°F and bake an additional 25 minutes.

8. Serve warm, at room temperature, or chilled. Do not refrigerate if you’re aiming for period presentation.

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Serving & Sauce Notes

This pork pie was served with mustard—a classic pairing in both period and modern service. Choose stone-ground, whole grain, or period-inspired must sauces. A sweet-and-sharp balance pairs beautifully with the warm spices in the pie.

For historical flair, explore “To Make Mustard Divers Ways”, which includes several period options, including preparations with vinegar, ale, and spices. These make excellent accompaniments to late-period pies or tavern fare. This pork pie was served with mustard—a classic pairing in both period and modern service. Choose stone-ground, whole grain, or period-inspired must sauces. A sweet-and-sharp balance pairs beautifully with the warm spices in the pie.

Vegetarian Alternative – Fridayes Pye (c. 1615)
If you’re feeding a mixed crowd or observing a meatless Friday, consider pairing the pork pie with a vegetable-based option. A Fridayes Pye, also attributed to early 17th-century English sources, uses greens or beets, apples, currants, and ginger for a sweet-savory blend that bakes beautifully in a single crust. It offers a flexible meat-free addition for dayboards or taverns.

Need a Meat-Free Pastry?
For vegetarian pies like A Fridayes Pye, try a butter-based or vegan crust suitable for Lent or no-flesh days. See below for options.

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Bonus Recipe: Vegetarian & Vegan Pie Crust Options

Ovo-Lacto Vegetarian Crust:

• 2 ½ cups flour

• ½ tsp salt

• ½ cup cold butter, diced

• ¼–½ cup cold water

• Optional: 1 tsp vinegar or orange flower water

Cut butter into flour and salt, add water gradually, and chill before rolling. Suitable for both savory and sweet pies.

Vegan-Friendly Crust (Modern Adaptation):

• 2 ½ cups flour

• ½ tsp salt

• ½ cup refined coconut oil or vegan butter substitute (cold)

• ¼–½ cup ice water

Mix as above. This crust mimics period fasting-day pastes while meeting modern dietary needs.

Historical Note: While vegan diets weren’t defined in period, oil-based crusts were used during Lent and no-flesh days. These adaptations maintain historical intent with modern clarity.

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Historical and SCA Notes

While Rabisha’s work dates to 1682—technically post-period for SCA documentation—it captures pre-Civil War culinary practices, including layering meats, seasoning with spice blends, and enclosing pies in coffins for preservation. Many cooks use Rabisha’s recipes when looking for transitional or late-period English fare that bridges into the 17th century.

Looking for a fully period alternative?

Pork pies of similar construction appear earlier, notably in A Book of Cookrye (1591), which includes a Gammon of Bacon recipe using layered pork or bacon, spices, and pastry coffins. This version is solidly within SCA period and makes an excellent substitute if documentation is a concern.

Medieval Gruel Compared: Drawyn Grwel vs Grewel Eforced

The Evolution of Medieval Gruel: Comparing Grewel Eforced and Drawyn Grwel Across Manuscripts

Modern interpretation of medieval gruel served in rustic wooden bowl, featuring oatmeal, herbs, and tender meat

Introduction

While “gruel” might still evoke images of bleak Victorian workhouses or colorless hospital trays, the historical reality is far richer—and more flavorful. Across late medieval England, gruel wasn’t just a thin porridge for the poor. It evolved into a flexible culinary form enriched with meat, herbs, marrow, and even blood. In this article, we explore how various versions of grewel eforced and drawyn grwel appear across five major manuscripts spanning over a century (1390–1500).

This piece builds on our earlier posts detailing individual recipes from Grewel a-forsydde and Drawyn Grwel. Here, we compare them head-to-head: their ingredients, methods, intended audiences, and what they tell us about medieval food culture. Whether you're a culinary historian, a reenactor, or simply oat-curious, you'll come away with a deeper appreciation for this humble but endlessly adaptable dish.

What is Medieval Gruel?

At its simplest, medieval gruel is a liquid-based dish made from grain—typically oatmeal—boiled with water or broth. While it shares ancestry with porridge, gruel is thinner, more broth-like, and often served hot in bowls or trenchers. In most contexts, it was peasant food: cheap, hearty, and easily scalable to feed many mouths.

But medieval cookery manuscripts also preserve more elaborate versions: gruel that’s “eforced” (enriched) or “drawyn” (strained and tempered). These versions might include pork, beef, marrow bones, saffron, herbs, and careful preparation steps like grinding, sieving, and multiple boils. What emerges is a spectrum—from rustic sustenance to refined fare fit for noble households or healing tables.

Key Manuscripts and Timeframes

Let’s begin by situating the recipes within their historical sources. The five manuscripts below each contain a variant of fortified or tempered gruel, reflecting subtle changes in ingredients and technique over time:

• Fourme of Curye (Rylands MS 7, c. 1390): A courtly collection associated with the kitchens of Richard II, featuring a recipe for “grewel eforced” with pork and saffron.
• Liber Cure Cocorum (Sloane MS 1986, c. 1430): A northern English manuscript offering practical, poetic instructions for “gruel of force” with oat groats and careful straining.
• A Noble Boke off Cookry (c. 1468): Richer in tone, this version emphasizes marrow bones, strained broths, and meat purity, showing growing concern for elegance and digestion.
• Gentyllmanly Cokere (MS Pepys 1047, c. 1500): A late manuscript that elaborates on earlier trends with greater refinement, using both beef marrow and tender pork.
• Harleian MS. 279 – Drawyn Grwel (c. 1430): Unique for its use of beef and blood, this recipe is herb-forward (parsley and sage) and focused on texture via straining.

Together, these manuscripts span over 100 years and showcase the growing complexity of what began as peasant soup. In the sections that follow, we’ll compare them directly—ingredient by ingredient, technique by technique.

Ingredient Comparison Table

To understand how these recipes differ, it helps to view their ingredients side by side. Below is a simplified comparison of key components used in each manuscript’s version of enriched gruel.

Manuscript	Main Protein	Grain Type	Herbs & Spices	Color Additive	Strained?
Fourme of Curye (1390)	Pork	Oatmeal	None specified	Saffron	Yes
Liber Cure Cocorum (1430)	Pork	Oaten grotes (groats)	None specified	Saffron	Yes
A Noble Boke off Cookry (1468)	Pork + Marrow Bones	Oatmeal	None specified	None noted	Yes
Gentyllmanly Cokere (c. 1500)	Fresh Beef + Pork + Marrow	Oatmeal	None specified	Saffron	Yes
Harleian MS. 279 – Drawyn Grwel (1430)	Lean Beef + Blood	Oatmeal	Parsley, Sage	Blood (for browning)	Yes

Though all recipes rely on oatmeal as a base, we begin to see distinctions: pork in the earlier texts, marrow-rich preparations in later ones, and uniquely, beef and blood in Drawyn Grwel.

Technique Evolution Over Time

The progression from rustic gruel to refined dish is not just in ingredients—it’s visible in the techniques. Across the manuscripts, several key practices become more defined:

• Grinding: Meat is chopped and pounded in a mortar for smoother texture, especially emphasized in Fourme of Curye and the Noble Boke.
• Straining: Early recipes mention straining the oats and broth, likely through cloth or fine mesh. Later versions maintain this step for visual elegance and palatability.
• Simmering over time: Most recipes suggest long cooking times for the oats to fully soften and the broth to thicken naturally, creating a hearty but refined texture.
• Layered cooking: Initial boiling of meat to remove impurities, followed by broth use and second boiling, reflects growing culinary hygiene and sophistication.

These refinements reveal a shift in culinary values: from basic nourishment to aesthetics, digestion, and status.

Meat Matters: Pork vs. Beef vs. Marrow Bones

The choice of meat speaks volumes about both the period and the intended audience of each recipe. Pork was the most common in earlier versions—not surprising, given its affordability, versatility, and symbolic association with sustenance in medieval Europe.

By the 15th century, however, we begin to see a shift. Drawyn Grwel introduces lean beef as its protein base, likely reflecting both regional availability and growing preference for “cleaner” meat in refined dishes. The use of blood not only darkens the gruel but adds iron-rich depth—something prized in healing foods.

Later manuscripts, such as the Noble Boke and Gentyll manly Cokere, incorporate marrow bones. This addition denotes luxury, as marrow was considered both a delicacy and a rich, energy-dense food. These versions were likely intended for noble tables or ceremonial meals, rather than everyday fare.

Herbal and Spice Profiles

In contrast to the more minimalist early recipes, later medieval gruel preparations begin to incorporate aromatic herbs and luxury spices. These additions served dual purposes: enhancing flavor and communicating refinement or wealth.

• Parsley & Sage: Uniquely featured in Drawyn Grwel, these herbs reflect not only culinary flavoring but also healthful symbolism. Sage, in particular, was prized for digestive and antiseptic properties.
• Saffron: Used in Fourme of Curye, Liber Cure Cocorum, and Gentyllmanly Cokere, saffron was a luxury item. Its bright color and subtle aroma elevated gruel from humble food to a dish suitable for high-status tables.
• Salt & Pepper: Almost universally present, but rarely mentioned explicitly—assumed to be added to taste or in the straining stage.

While earlier recipes relied purely on the natural richness of meat and oats, the introduction of herbs and spices in later versions reflects the increasing overlap between medicine, taste, and social distinction in food.

Use of Blood and Color Manipulation

Perhaps the most striking feature in Drawyn Grwel is its use of blood—not just as an ingredient, but as a color and flavor enhancer. The instructions call for collecting the blood from boiled beef, then reintegrating it into the pot either before or after straining, to darken the gruel and enrich its depth.

In medieval cuisine, blood was not taboo—it was commonplace, particularly in sausages, black puddings, and stews. Beyond flavor, blood added color, thickness, and nutrients such as iron and protein, making it a functional choice for both presentation and nourishment.

Modern Substitutes for Blood:

If cooking for contemporary audiences, or if actual blood is unavailable or unappealing, consider these kitchen-friendly alternatives:

• Beef or pork drippings: Adds meaty richness and depth without the texture of blood.
• Dark soy sauce or Worcestershire sauce: Offers umami and color enhancement in small amounts.
• Black pudding crumbles: If available, crumble small amounts into the broth as a nod to traditional methods.
• Beef bone marrow or liver puree: Provides similar richness and body, with a smoother consistency.

Whether staying faithful to history or modernizing for comfort, the goal is the same: to deepen color and richness without overpowering the grain and herb base.

Textural Intent: Thin Broths vs. Fortified Soups

The spectrum of medieval gruels stretches from thin, drinkable broths to spoon-thick stews. Understanding where each version falls on this continuum offers insight into its purpose:

• “Rennyng” or Running Gruel: Often prescribed for the ill or elderly. These thinner preparations were easy to digest and often strained more thoroughly. Drawyn Grwel leans toward this category, despite its hearty ingredients, due to its emphasis on straining.
• “Eforced” or Enriched Gruel: These versions, like those from Fourme of Curye or Gentyllmanly Cokere, were denser and served as nourishing meals. They were intended to sustain laborers, feed households, or even anchor feasts.

Texture, in medieval cuisine, was as much about class and occasion as it was about preference. A smooth, clear gruel might be seen as elegant and appropriate for a noble sickbed, while a chunkier version signified abundance and rustic strength.

Straining, Drawing, and Presentation

The medieval instruction to “draw” gruel through a strainer was more than a culinary quirk—it was a meaningful technique tied to status, health, and texture. The act of straining removed bone fragments, tough oat hulls, gristle, and impurities, resulting in a smoother and more refined presentation.

In Drawyn Grwel, straining is explicitly mentioned after the beef, oatmeal, and herbs have been cooked. This step would have rendered a velvety, herbal broth with uniform consistency—particularly valuable when serving to nobles or the infirm.

In contrast, earlier eforced recipes—like those in Fourme of Curye or Liber Cure Cocorum—also include straining, but often retain more texture due to groats or unrefined meat. Later manuscripts, such as Gentyllmanly Cokere, reinforce this refinement trend with added marrow and extended simmering.

Presentation Tactics in Period:

• Use of colored additives (saffron, blood) for visual impact
• Garnishing with fresh herbs for brightness
• Serving in ceramic or wooden trenchers to match class or feast setting

The more refined the straining and finish, the more “gentle” the dish was considered—reinforcing its suitability for the elite, the convalescent, or religious fasting tables.

Modern Interpretations and Adaptations

Recreating these dishes today offers both a culinary time capsule and an opportunity to tailor the recipes to modern palates and dietary needs. Whether you're feeding reenactors or just experimenting in your home kitchen, each variation offers a different entry point.

• Drawyn Grwel: Ideal for those who enjoy savory herbal broths. It’s deeply umami-rich, with a texture like congee or smooth beef barley soup. The sage and parsley make it perfect for autumn or cold-season cooking.
• Grewel Eforced (Fourme of Curye / Noble Boke): More robust and filling, this version suits hearty appetites. The use of pork and marrow makes it feel like a medieval version of risotto or savory oatmeal stew.
• Vegetarian Adaptation: Replace meat with mushrooms, seitan, or legumes. Vegetable stock enriched with smoked paprika or miso paste gives depth. Use steel-cut oats for authenticity.

Don’t forget modern kitchen tools—stick blenders, cheesecloth, or food mills can help replicate medieval textures without the elbow grease.

Cultural Significance of Enriched Gruels

Fortified gruels in medieval times carried enormous cultural weight. They were more than food—they were medicine, community fare, and sometimes religious observance. A spoonful of oat-and-meat porridge could signify:

• Healing and Recovery: Smooth, strained gruels were often prescribed for the sick, elderly, or postnatal mothers due to their digestibility and warmth.
• Communal Nourishment: Gruels could be made in large quantities for feast days, fasting periods, or during times of scarcity.
• Hospitality and Ceremony: Enriched versions, especially those with saffron or marrow, were served to guests of rank or in religious institutions offering alms.

Thus, enriched gruel bridged social classes—from the laborer’s daily sustenance to the monk’s fast-day meal and the noblewoman’s recovery broth. Its versatility made it indispensable, and its variations offer a unique window into the values and limitations of medieval kitchens.

Connecting Historical Recipes to Contemporary Cuisine

Though centuries old, these medieval gruel recipes share surprising similarities with modern comfort foods around the world. The use of grains, savory broth, and slow cooking makes them natural ancestors to contemporary dishes:

• Congee (China): A rice-based porridge simmered with meat or vegetables, often garnished with herbs or preserved eggs.
• Risotto (Italy): While more refined and rice-based, the method of slow stirring and broth absorption mirrors enriched oat gruel preparation.
• Oatmeal Soup (Scotland): Known as brose or porage, this shares lineage with gruel and often includes meat or stock.
• Grits (American South): Ground cornmeal cooked to a creamy consistency, sometimes enriched with stock, butter, or cheese—illustrating the same principle of grain + fat + flavor.

These modern parallels show how gruel-style dishes persist as economical, nourishing meals suited for both everyday cooking and high-end reinvention. Medieval gruel may have laid the foundation for much of what we still enjoy today.

Final Thoughts: What Medieval Gruel Teaches Us

By tracing the evolution of gruel across these key manuscripts, we gain insight not only into historical cooking methods, but also into changing social, economic, and medicinal landscapes. What began as a humble bowl of oats and water evolved into sophisticated, enriched preparations that straddled class and occasion.

Whether drawn or eforced, pork- or beef-based, strained or chunky, medieval gruel was about nourishment, care, and adaptation. And that is perhaps its greatest legacy: a dish built not just for survival, but for thriving—one spoon at a time.

FAQs

Which medieval gruel recipe is closest to congee?

Drawyn Grwel, with its thin, strained texture and herbal notes, is the most comparable to traditional Asian congee. It’s easy to digest and offers subtle layers of flavor.

What’s the most luxurious version of gruel from the manuscripts?

The version from A Noble Boke off Cookry, featuring pork, marrow bones, and refined straining, likely served noble or ceremonial purposes and represents the most elevated example.

Are any of these recipes vegetarian-friendly?

While none of the original texts are vegetarian, they can be adapted using mushroom stock, miso, or root vegetables to replicate umami and texture. Use steel-cut oats for best results.

What modern dish is most similar to Grewel Eforced?

Grewel Eforced resembles a savory oatmeal risotto or oat-based barley stew. It’s thick, filling, and well-suited to one-pot cooking, particularly in colder months.

Why was straining so important in medieval cooking?

Straining removed bone shards, gristle, and oat hulls, improving both safety and texture. It was also associated with refinement, digestion, and presentation—especially for noble or medicinal meals.

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