How to Make Elizabethan Fruit Pastes & Marmalades (Quince, Peach & Plum)

Paste of quince (amber), apricot (yellow), and strawberries (red).

Originally published: December 2020
Updated: October 24, 2025

Sweet Preserves for a Banquet Table

In the Elizabethan era, fruit pastes—sometimes called marmalades or “chardequynce”—were glittering jewels of sugar, fruit, and spice. They appeared at the close of grand meals as part of the banqueting course, alongside marchpane, candied spices, and comfits. Far from our modern breakfast spreads, these were confections of luxury—delicate, perfumed, and designed as edible art.

My earliest experiment with fruit paste was a quince paste, followed by a Spanish-style marmalade made with dates, powdered pearls, and gold leaf. Since then, I’ve made pastes of apples, raspberries, strawberries, apricots, and plums. For our Baronial Twelfth Night, the table featured a full assortment of these sparkling fruits.

Historical Context

The first fruit pastes appear in late medieval manuscripts such as *A Leechbook* (Royal Medical Society MS 136, c.1444) and continue into the Tudor and Elizabethan printed cookbooks like A.W.’s A Book of Cookrye (1587) and John Partridge’s The Treasurie of Commodious Conceits (1573). These recipes often recommend honey or sugar as preservatives, with quinces or wardens (a firm pear) providing natural pectin. Sugar was believed to “close the stomach” and aid digestion—so these confections were thought medicinal as well as delightful.

By the late 16th century, “marmalade” had expanded beyond quince to include peaches, plums, and even medlars. Unlike modern spreads, these were boiled until firm and cut into decorative shapes, sometimes impressed with moulds and dusted with sugar to gleam like gemstones.

The very word marmalade comes from the Portuguese marmelada, meaning a preserve of quince (marmelo). It entered English through imported Iberian sweetmeats and gradually expanded to mean any thick fruit conserve. Only in the 17th century did citrus marmalades—especially bitter orange—become fashionable in England.

Sugar, Trade, and Luxury

In the 1400s and early 1500s, sugar was a costly import from Mediterranean trade routes, used sparingly in medicines and aristocratic kitchens. By Elizabeth’s reign, Caribbean plantations and new trade networks made sugar more available, transforming what had been a medicinal luxury into a fashionable indulgence. Elaborate sugarwork became a mark of refinement—these pastes were served on gilded dishes at banquets to showcase both taste and status.

Period Tools & Presentation

Household inventories list *marmalet boxes*—small wooden or pewter containers used to store fruit pastes—and carved boxwood moulds for shaping them into knots, roses, or heraldic badges. Displayed among marchpane and candied fruits, these confections were edible sculptures. At feasts, they were offered in the banquetting house alongside spiced wine, wafers, and sugar plate, eaten in tiny bites rather than spread on bread.

Humoral Theory Notes

According to Galenic medicine, quinces and other tart fruits were considered cold and dry in the second degree, balancing the hot and moist qualities of meats and wines. The addition of sugar, cinnamon, and ginger “warmed” the mixture, making it more agreeable to the stomach. Thus, fruit pastes served both as decoration and as digestive aid.

Iberian Influence

England’s fascination with “Spanish marmalades” reflected the influence of Iberian confectionery traditions using honey, rosewater, and spice. Early imports were prized gifts, inspiring English cooks to recreate them at home. A.W.’s peach marmalade and Partridge’s plum version show how continental recipes adapted to local fruits and English tastes.

Renaissance Candied Fruit, Roots & Flowers (Markham, 1623) — Step-by-Step + Modern Method

Sugared Plums (Renaissance method)

Originally published: 2015  •  Updated: 2025-10-24

Context. This post expands on Gervase Markham’s early-17th-century candying method from The English Huswife (1623), part of his famous “banqueting-stuffe”—the delicate sugarwork served at the end of elite meals. Candying preserved seasonal produce for winter and created jewel-like sweets for feast courses and subtleties. Below you’ll find Markham’s original text and a carefully tested modern method I use for SCA feast work.

Okashi – Anmitsu and Japanese Sweet Traditions (Muromachi Feast Recreation)

Jasmine green tea ice cream on agar (kanten), surrounded by red bean paste and a drizzle of black sugar syrup.

Imagine my surprise when I realized I’d never published the final tray of the feast! This course—built around Anmitsu—was my nod to banquet finales that closed with fruit and confections. My interpretation layers agar jelly, fresh fruit, shiratama mochi, sweet red bean paste (anko), black sugar syrup (kuromitsu), and jasmine green tea ice cream.

Historical Frame: Okashi in Context

In the Muromachi period (1336–1573), formal banquet cuisine (honzen ryori) treated sweets as refined, seasonal endings rather than everyday fare. Sugar was scarce and costly; sweetness often came from beans, grains, or fruit. As long-distance trade expanded, imported sugars and new tools elevated confectionery into an art closely linked with tea culture—favoring elegance and balance over intense sweetness.

Seasonal Aesthetics: Confections mirrored the time of year—spring blossoms, summer greens, autumn leaves, winter snows. Their fleeting forms encouraged contemplation of impermanence and gratitude at table.

Trade, Technique, and Evolution

Maritime trade in the 16th century brought refined sugar and new implements that influenced sweet-making. Hybrid sweets (like castella sponge) arose from cultural exchange. Meanwhile, temple kitchens and courtly households continued to favor plant-based textures and subtle flavors, keeping okashi aligned with ideals of restraint.

Cross-Cultural Parallels

Just as medieval Europe prized marchpane and sugar plate as status-laden table art, Japan refined bean- and rice-based sweets into edible miniatures of the natural world. In both traditions, confectionery served as display, diplomacy, and delight.

• Heian → Kamakura: fruits, nuts, lightly sweetened treats
• Muromachi: codified banquets; sweet courses as refined finales
• Edo: wagashi artistry flourishes with broader sugar access

Ingredient Insights

Agar (kanten): a seaweed-derived gelling agent long valued in Buddhist vegetarian cooking and later central to clear, delicate jellies in confectionery.

Anko (red bean paste): sweetened adzuki paste that underpins many classic sweets. Texture ranges from smooth to rustic and chunky.

Kuromitsu (black sugar syrup): made from unrefined brown sugars—deeper, rounder, and more mineral than modern white sugar syrups.

Comfits of Anise and Fennel – Medieval Candied Spices & Seeds (A Sweet Treat from the Past)

Comfits—candied spices & seeds—served as sweet digestives and table decoration in late medieval & Renaissance feasts.

Comfits – Medieval Candied Spices & Seeds (How to Make Historic Comfits)

Originally published 9/15/15 / updated 10/1/2025

Please note this correction: gum arabic and gum tragacanth are not the same substance. I originally conflated them—mea culpa, and thank you to the reader who flagged it.

Baronial 12th Night Comfits

Comfits were often served at the end of a feast as a digestive, to perfume the breath, and to decorate subtlety dishes and table settings. Aromatic seeds such as anise, fennel, or caraway were built up with repeated coats of sugar syrup—sometimes tinted with beet, spinach, or saffron. Almonds, ginger, and cinnamon splinters appear in later sources as well. You can still buy descendants of these sweets today (think Jordan almonds and pastilles), but handmade comfits are more delicate and—yes—tastier.

Rose Conserve – Medieval Sugared Petals for Heart & Spirit

Rose conserve — my original 2017 photo, refreshed here with updated notes and historical context.

Originally published: October 2, 2017 • Updated: September 19, 2025

Rose Conserve – A Medieval Confection of Petals & Sugar

Rose conserve — also called conserva rosarum — is a perfumed paste of fresh rose petals pounded with sugar. It sits right on the border of food and medicine: sweet enough for the banquet table, soothing enough to appear in apothecary lists. Cool, fragrant, and very old-fashioned in the best way.

Hannah Woolley’s Queen-like Closet (1675) – Recipe LXXXVI: To Make the Best Orange Marmalade.

Originally published: May 28, 2017 — Updated: September 19, 2025

Elizabethan Orange Marmalade – From Hannah Woolley’s Queen-like Closet (1675)

Historical Context

This recipe comes from Hannah Woolley (1622–1675), one of the first Englishwomen to publish cookery and household books under her own name. Her Queen-like Closet (1675) offered not only food recipes but also remedies, preserving techniques, and domestic advice. Orange marmalade, recipe LXXXVI, is one of her standout entries, and I’ve been itching to try it for years. When I found a pile of blood oranges on clearance, that was my excuse. No pressure, right? 😊

Marmalade in England: The word “marmalade” originally meant a quince paste (marmelada) from Portugal. By the late 16th century, imported Seville oranges became the fruit of choice for marmalade. These bitter oranges, full of pectin, set well and gave a sharp tang. Woolley specifies “deepest coloured oranges,” and while she probably meant Sevilles, I used blood oranges—sweeter and ruby-red. Everyone who tasted my batch loved it, but it is sweeter than a true bitter-orange preserve would have been.

Cultural Notes

• Cost of Oranges: In Woolley’s day, oranges were still a luxury. A pound could cost as much as a laborer’s daily wage. To serve marmalade at table was as much a statement of wealth as it was hospitality.
• Orangeries: Wealthy households began building “orangeries”—brick or glass houses to protect citrus trees through the English winter. Having one was as fashionable as wearing pearls. Preserves like marmalade were an edible extension of that prestige.
• Sugar as Luxury: Sugar came in loaves, had to be clarified, and was still expensive in the 17th century. It was considered medicinal as much as culinary. Combining oranges and sugar meant this marmalade straddled the line between health remedy and confection.
• Storage: Woolley instructs to “put it up in gally-pots.” These were small glazed jars sealed with paper, leather, or wax. Unlike our modern sealed canning jars, period marmalade wasn’t shelf-stable for years—it was eaten within months.

💰 Cost of Citrus & Sugar in Period

In the 16th–17th centuries, both oranges and sugar were expensive luxuries. A pound of imported oranges could cost as much as a day’s wage for a laborer, and sugar came in hard loaves that had to be chipped and clarified. Serving marmalade wasn’t just a treat — it was a visible display of wealth and refinement.

🍽️ Menu Placement & Humoral Theory

Marmalade and fruit preserves were served at the banquet course—a light, sweet table after the heavy meats. Oranges were considered cold and dry, while sugar and apples were warm and moist. Together, they made a more balanced food, thought to help digestion at the end of a feast.

The Original Recipe

Queen-like Closet (1675)

Modernized Text

LXXXVI. To make the best Orange Marmalade. Take the Rinds of the deepest coloured Oranges, boil them in several Waters till they are very tender, then mince them small, and to one pound of Oranges, take a Pound of Pippins cut small, one Pound of the finest Sugar, and one Pint of Spring-water, me't your Sugar in the Water over the fire, and scum it, then put in your Pippins, and boil them till they are very clear, then put in the Orange Rind, and boil them together, til you find by cooling a little of it, that it wil jelly very well, then put in the Iuice of two Oranges, and one Limon, and boil it a little longer; and then put it up in Gally-pots.

To make the best Orange Marmalade: Take the rinds of the deepest-colored oranges. Boil them in several changes of water until very tender, then mince them small. For each pound of orange rind, take a pound of pippins (apples), a pound of fine sugar, and a pint of spring water. Melt the sugar in the water over the fire and skim it. Add the apples and boil until clear. Add the orange rind and continue boiling until it will set like jelly when cooled. Then add the juice of two oranges and one lemon. Boil a little longer, then put into jars.

Dry Peaches and Red Quince Paste served at Curia Regis (9/10/2017)

To Dry Peaches – 17th-Century Fruit Paste (Hannah Wolley, 1670)

Originally published 9/16/17. Updated 9/19/2025.

Golden peach pastes adapted from Hannah Wolley’s Queen-Like Closet (1670): jewel-bright confections, oven or dehydrator friendly, ideal for SCA feasts.

This sweet preserve comes from The Queen-Like Closet (1670), a cookbook and household guide by Hannah Wolley. While late for the SCA timeline, her preserving methods represent skills widely practiced in the 16th and 17th centuries—perfectly in line with late-period banquet fare.

About Hannah Wolley

Hannah Wolley (1622–c.1674) was among the first Englishwomen to make a career from writing. She was the first to publish cookery books under her own name, the first to openly market them to servants and housewives as well as the gentry, and one of the earliest women in England to claim authorship professionally. Her career began with The Ladies Directory (1661) and The Cook’s Guide (1664), before culminating in The Queen-Like Closet (1670). The latter went through multiple editions, was translated into German, and became her best-known work. She blended recipes for food, preserves, and medicines, establishing herself as the “Martha Stewart” of her day.

What Kind of Peaches?

In 17th-century England, peaches were a luxury fruit, grown in walled gardens or imported at high cost. Period peaches were closer to older European cultivars: smaller, firmer, often slightly tart, and prized for their fragrance. They were valued in preserves where structure and color mattered as much as flavor.

• Period style: Older white-fleshed clingstone peaches (smaller, firmer).
• Modern substitutes: White peaches (delicate, aromatic), yellow peaches (bright amber color), or apricots (documented in the original recipes).
• Practical feast kitchen: Frozen peaches or reconstituted dried apricots work beautifully when fresh fruit is out of season.

Sources in Period

CCXV. To dry Apricocks. Take your fairest Apricocks and stone them... boil them till they are clear... lay them out upon Glasses to dry in a stove, and turn them twice a day.

CCI. To dry Apricocks or Pippins to look as clear as Amber. Take Apricocks... set them into a warm Oven... every day turn them till they be quite dry. Thus you may dry any sort of Plumbs or Pears as well as the other, and they will look very clear.

—Hannah Wolley, The Queen-Like Closet (1670)

Editor’s Note: Although Hannah Wolley’s Queen-Like Closet (1670) is technically outside the SCA’s 1600 cut-off, the method of drying fruits with sugar syrup was already well established centuries earlier. Wolley’s text preserves a technique that was in active use during the medieval and Renaissance periods, even if not written down until her time.

• 14th century – Forme of Cury (c.1390): preserves and sugared fruits appear.
• 15th century – Harleian MS. 279 (c.1430): recipes for fruit pastes and conserves.
• 16th century – Platina and Scappi describe sugared fruits, marmalades, and pastes on elite banquet tables.
• 17th century – Hannah Wolley records these long-standing practices in print (1670).

This timeline shows that while Wolley’s printed version is late, the preservation technique itself is “in period” and entirely appropriate for SCA feasts.

Menu Placement

Dried fruits and fruit pastes were served as part of the banquet course—the sweets and subtlety table that followed the main meal. They also travel well, making them practical for camping feasts today.

Humoral Notes

According to humoral theory, peaches were considered cold & moist. Drying them and cooking them with sugar shifted them toward balance, making them more wholesome. Serving them with warming spices like cinnamon or ginger further balanced their nature.

Apple & Curd Pancakes (1682) — A Fryed Meate in Haste for the Second Course

A Fryed Meate (Pancakes) in Haste for the Second Course (The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected, 1682)

A Fryed Meate in Haste for the Second Course — apple & curd pancakes finished with sugar.

Originally published 10/29/2017 - updated 9/17/2025

 In late 17th-century English cookery, “meat” can simply mean food/dish, not specifically animal flesh. This recipe from The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected (1682) makes quick, delicate apple-and-curd pancakes scented with rosewater, sack (fortified wine), cinnamon, and nutmeg. It’s a natural fit for a brunch or as a sweet course between heavier roasts. I originally made these for our Curia Regis Brunch set—now updated to my modern format.

Source: The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected (1682) — “A Fryed Meate (Pancakes) in Haste for the Second Course.”

Original Text (1682)

Take a pint of curds made tender of morning milk, pressed clean from the Whey, put to them one handful of flour, six eggs, casting away three whites, a little rosewater, sack, cinnamon, nutmeg, sugar, salt, and two pippins minced small, beat this all together into a thick batter, so that it may not run abroad; if you want wherewith to temper it add cream; when they are fried, scrape on sugar and send them up; if this curd be made with sack, as it may as well as with rennet, you may make a pudding with the whey thereof.

Notes: “Pippins” = firm cooking apples. “Sack” ≈ fortified white wine (e.g., dry sherry). “Curds” today map neatly to drained cottage cheese or farmer’s cheese.

Modern Recipe — Apple & Curd Pancakes (makes ~12 small)

Entremets — The Forgotten Medieval Course

Entremets — The Forgotten Medieval Course Between Pottage and Roast

Paolo Veronese, The Feast in the House of Levi (1573), Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice. Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.

Updated: 2025-09-11 · Labels: Entremet · Feast Planning · Historical Cooking · Medieval · Renaissance

Modern feast menus often jump from a pottage or soup straight to roasts. Historically, diners expected something between. The entremet (Old French: “between-dish”) served as a bridge between heavy services, offering refreshment, surprise, and sometimes outright spectacle. This post explains the term’s origins, how it functioned, where it went, and practical ways to revive it in today’s feasts.

Etymology & Early References

Entremet derives from Old French (entre + mettre/mettre “to place/send in between”), literally a dish interposed between services. The concept appears prominently in 14th‑century French sources such as Le Viandier and later in Le Ménagier de Paris; in English material (e.g., Harleian MS. 279, c.1430) you find dishes that likely filled the same role, even when not labeled “entremet.”

Function of the Entremet

• Pacing & Palate Reset: a light interlude after dense pottages or fish and before the roasts.
• Spectacle & Surprise: color shifts, unusual textures, disguised forms, molded shapes.
• Status & Seasonality: ingredients like saffron, sugar, almonds signal wealth and trade access; colors and motifs reflect seasonal/religious themes.

Entremet vs. Soteltie (Subtlety)

Aspect	Entremet	Soteltie / Subtlety
Purpose	Culinary surprise between services; light refreshment	Edible (or semi‑edible) display; allegory, heraldry, pageant
Form	Real dishes: rice, fritters, jellies, fruit, delicate pottages	Sculpted pastry/sugar/marzipan; sometimes inedible components
Placement	Between major courses (e.g., after fish/pottage, before roasts)	Also between courses, but primarily ceremonial/representational
Examples	Blawnche Perrye; colored rice; almond jelly; small fritters	Heraldic beasts; castles; motto banners; sugar tableaux

Historical Examples

• Blawnche Perrye — a light, pale pottage; visually striking early in a feast.
• Colored rice — saffron‑gold, parsley‑green, or spiced rice for contrast.
• Fritters — rice or fruit fritters served in small bites.
• Jellies — molded almond or wine jellies; multicolored effects.
• Disguised dishes — meats/fish presented in altered forms for surprise.

Regional Variations of the Entremet

While the entremet began in French courtly dining, the idea of a “between dish” spread widely. Each region adapted the form to local tastes, ingredients, and cultural priorities.

France

In sources such as Le Viandier and Le Ménagier de Paris (14th c.), entremets often took spectacular form — multicolored jellies, stuffed or disguised animals, and occasional allegorical displays.

England

English manuscripts like Harleian MS. 279 (~1430) present plainer entremets: light pottages (e.g., Blawnche Perrye), spiced rice, or oyster dishes — emphasizing humoral balance over pageantry.

Italy

Italian masters (Maestro Martino, Scappi) blurred entremets with refined lighter courses: almond milk dishes, sugared rice, small pasta or vegetable preparations with elegant presentation.

Spain & Catalonia

Texts such as Llibre de Coch (1520) show sweet‑leaning entremets — almond pastes, candied fruits, spiced rice — foreshadowing dessert traditions.

Germany

German Speisebücher and later works (e.g., Anna Wecker, 1598) feature Zwischenspeisen (“between‑dishes”): saffron or parsley‑colored rice, Sülze (bright fish/meat jellies), and fritters like Krapfen or Strauben — practical, colorful, and texturally contrasting.

Comparison at a Glance

Region	Style	Typical Entremets
France	Spectacle & allegory	Multicolored jellies; disguised animals; displays
England	Plain & balancing	Light pottages; Blawnche Perrye; spiced rice; oysters
Italy	Refined & sweet‑leaning	Almond milk dishes; sugared rice; elegant vegetables/pasta
Spain	Sweet & aromatic	Candied fruit; almond pastes; sweet rice
Germany	Practical & colorful	Saffron/parsley rice; Sülze; fritters (Krapfen, Strauben)

Cultural Implications of the Entremet

• Status & Wealth: saffron, sugar, and almonds advertised trade connections and prosperity.
• Hospitality & Generosity: an “extra” dish beyond necessity signaled refined care for guests.
• Symbolism & Allegory: colors, shapes, and motifs could project heraldry, virtues, or politics.
• Religious Context: on fast days, almond/fish/rice entremets expressed piety while keeping celebration.
• Urban vs. Rural: princely or guild feasts layered multiple entremets; smaller households scaled with fruit or fritters.

Techniques & Ingredients for Recreating Historical Entremets Today

Coloring & Flavoring

• Saffron for gold; spinach/parsley juice for green; beet/red wine for red‑purple.
• Pouder douce/forte-inspired spice mixes (cinnamon, ginger, grains of paradise/pepper, clove) for warming balance.

Texture & Setting

• Gelatin sheets as a modern stand‑in for isinglass; almond milk (unsweetened) for dairy‑free jellies/pottages; rice flour for smooth thickening.
• Use silicone molds or small ramekins for easy unmolding and portion control.

Service & Plating

• Keep portions amuse‑bouche to tasting‑spoon size.
• Serve on trenchers or small plates for visual “in‑between” cues.
• Contrast color/temperature with adjacent courses (e.g., warm saffron rice after a cool fish pottage).

How Preparation & Serving Evolved Across Cultures

• France: 14th‑c. courtly showpieces; by 17th‑c. service à la française, “entremets” shifts toward plated side dishes (vegetables/sweets).
• England: lighter, balancing dishes early on; later, subtleties dominate the between‑course spectacle while “entremet” as a named category fades.
• Italy: refined palate‑cleansers in Martino/Scappi; drift toward sweet course traditions.
• Germany: practical Zwischenspeisen (colored rice, Sülze, fritters) persist as pacing devices; concept echoes into modern zwischenmahlzeiten (snacks).
• Spain/Catalonia: sweet, aromatic dishes bridge to the rise of post‑meal desserts.

Social & Political Implications of Elaborate Entremets

• Political messaging: allegorical colors/figures could reinforce heraldry, dynastic claims, or alliances.
• Diplomatic theatre: multiple entremets broadcast wealth and organizational prowess to envoys/guests.
• Religious signalling: fast‑day almond/rice/fish displays piety + generosity.
• Guild identity: urban companies used entremets to rival noble display and celebrate craft prosperity.
• Class contrast: layering “extras” underlined hierarchy where common tables had few courses.

Modern Feast Planning: Reviving the Entremet

• Pick one small, high‑impact dish (colored rice, fritter, molded jelly).
• Plate for contrast (color/temperature/texture) and keep portions small.
• Mind humoral balance: pair cold‑moist (oysters, almond milk) with warming spices (ginger, pepper).
• Leverage dietary wins: many entremets are naturally GF/DF; offer a vegan variant where sensible.

🍽️ Entremet Examples on Give it Forth

• Orenges after the Portugall Fashion – preserved and stuffed citrus
• Gelo in Bocconcini di più Colori – jewel-like multi-colored jellies
• Bolas (Poached Pears in Plum Sauce) – fruit course with sauce
• Spanish Wedges – elegant 17th-c. sweet entremet
• Blawnche Perrye – creamy almond & fish dish, often served between courses

FAQ: Does a Modern Galantine Count as an Entremet?

Sometimes. If served as a small, decorative “between” dish (rather than as part of the roast service), a galantine can function as an entremet. Keep portions modest and presentation striking; otherwise it reads as a main meat course.

Sources & Further Reading

• Le Viandier (14th c.) — early entremet references.
• Le Ménagier de Paris (c. 1393) — household menus with entremet-like items.
• Harleian MS. 279 (c. 1430) — English recipes including light pottages and oysters.
• Maestro Martino, The Art of Cooking — refined Italian inter-course dishes.
• Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera — elegant entremet examples in Renaissance service.
• Anna Wecker, Ein Köstlich new Kochbuch (1598) — German Zwischenspeisen.
• Llibre de Coch (1520, Catalonia) — sweet/aromatic entremet traditions.

🍊 Oranges after the Portugal Fashion (Sir Hugh Plat, 1609)

Originally published 1/18/2015 - Updated 9/10/2025

Description. This dazzling Renaissance confection comes from Sir Hugh Plat’s Delights for Ladies (1609). “To preserve Orenges after the Portugall fashion” describes a labor-intensive but show-stopping sweet: whole oranges boiled to temper bitterness, candied in syrup, then stuffed with marmalade made from their own pulp. Once finished, they’re sliced like hard-boiled eggs—revealing a jewel-bright center.

Note: Period cooks likely used Seville (bitter) oranges. Sweet oranges make a gentler, less astringent modern result; either works with the method below.

Candied whole oranges simmering in syrup.

Historical Recipe (1609)

To preſerue Orenges after the Portugall faſhion. Take Orenges & coare them on the ſide and lay them in water, then boile them in fair water til they be tender, ſhift them in the boyling to take away their bitterneſſe, then take ſugar and boyle it to the height of ſirup as much as will couer them, and ſo put your Orenges into it, and that will make them take ſugar. If you haue 24. Orenges, beate 8. of them till they come to a paſte with a pounde of fine ſugar, then fill euery one of the other Orenges with the ſame, and ſo boile them again in your ſirup: then there will be marmelade of orenges with your orenges, & it will cut like an hard egge.

— Sir Hugh Plat, Delights for Ladies (1609)

Modernized Transcription

To preserve oranges after the Portugal fashion: core each orange on the side and soak in water. Boil in fair water until tender, changing the water to reduce bitterness. Boil sugar to a syrup sufficient to cover and put the oranges in so they take sugar. Of 24 oranges, beat 8 to a paste with a pound of fine sugar and fill the remaining oranges. Boil again in the syrup: you’ll have marmalade of oranges within the oranges, and it will cut like a hard egg.

Torta Bianca – White Tart (Redon, 1998)

Torta Bianca – White Tart (Maestro Martino → Redon, 1998)

“The Feast in the House of Levi” (detail), Paolo Veronese — banquet context for Renaissance tortes.

Torta bianca (“white tart”) was a dish of status and symbolism. Appearing in Maestro Martino’s Libro de arte coquinaria (c. 1465), it used fresh white cheese, egg whites, sugar, butter, and milk — baked gently, then perfumed with rosewater and sprinkled with sugar. In Renaissance Italy, white foods carried associations of purity, refinement, and health. By Scappi’s time (1570), torte bianche included versions with provatura (fresh stretched-curd cheese) or ricotta blended with Parmigiano.

How this post is structured

Below: (a) Martino’s original Italian text, (b) a literal English translation, (c) Redon’s modern adaptation summary, then a modern tested recipe. Afterward you’ll find 🥕 dietary notes, 📖 menu placement, substitutions, historical notes, cross-links, sources, labels, schema, and ⚖ humoral theory.

Original & Translated Recipes

Maestro Martino (c. 1465) — Italian

Per fare torta biancha. Togli del bono cascio frescho, et biancho, et pistalo molto bene nel mortaro, et metigli del zuccaro, et qualche quarta parte di butiro; et se vi mettessi un poco di lardo tanto meglio serà; poi mettivi alquanti chiari d’ova, et un poco di latte; et mettile sopra lo fuoco piano, et mescola spesso col cocchiaro. Et quando sarà ben mescolato, impastalo con fior di farina, et fa’ la torta cum lo crusto di sopra et di sotto. Et ponila a cocere in lo testo, o al forno, cum fuoco lento di sopra et di sotto; et quando serà cotta, gettagli di sopra un poco di zuccaro et acqua rosata; et serà bona.

Modern English (literal)

To make a white tart. Take good fresh white cheese and pound it very well in a mortar; add sugar and about a quarter part of butter (a little lard is even better); then some egg whites and a little milk. Set it over a gentle fire, stirring often. When well mixed, work it with fine flour, and make the tart with a crust above and below. Bake with gentle heat above and below; when cooked, sprinkle with sugar and rosewater, and it will be good.

Modern Adaptation (Redon)

A baked pie shell filled with a mixture of cream cheese, egg whites, sugar, butter, and milk. Baked until pale, finished with sugar, rosewater, and candied cherries.

Modern Recipe

Diriola – Maestro Martino’s Renaissance Custard Tart with Rosewater & Cinnamon

Diriola – Maestro Martino’s Custard Tart (Libro de arte Coquinaria)

“The Feast in the House of Levi” (detail), Paolo Veronese. Used here as period context for Renaissance custard tarts like Martino’s diriola.

Maestro Martino da Como (c. 1465) was one of the most influential cooks of the Renaissance. His Libro de arte Coquinaria includes Diriola, a delicate custard tart scented with cinnamon and rosewater. The dish straddles the line between medieval spiced creams and the refined Renaissance custards we’d recognize today. Redon, Sabban, and Serventi’s The Medieval Kitchen (1998) provides a modern adaptation faithful to Martino’s cues.

Original Recipe (Martino, c.1465)

Italian (15th c.)

“…un poca d’acqua rosata, et volta bene collo cocchiaro. Et quando sarà fornita di prendere, sera cotta. Et nota che non vole cocere troppo et vole tremare como una ionchata.

Per la Quadragesima: Habbi del lacte de le amandole con del zuccharo, et dell’acqua rosata, et de la canella. Et per fare che si prenda gli mettirai un pocha di farina d’amitto, observando in le altre cose l’ordine del capitolo sopra ditto.”

Translation

“…add a little rosewater and stir it well with a spoon. When it begins to set, it is cooked. Note that it should not be over-baked; it should quiver like a junket.

For Lent: take almond milk with sugar, rosewater, and cinnamon. To make it set, add a little starch flour, following the same method as above.”

Piatti di Salumi: Renaissance Antipasti & Mostarda (period and non-period recipe included)

“The Royal Feast” by Alonso Sánchez Coello (1531–1588), oil on canvas, public domain. A sumptuous Renaissance banquet scene that captures the richness and communal spirit of salumi, fruit, and condiments on the table.

Piatti di salumi, formaggi, olive, frutta fresca e secca e senape

Plates of cured meats, cheeses, olives, fresh and dried fruit, and mustard — listed on our 12th Night 2024 menu and served during the Primo seruitio posto in Tavola (first service on the table, antipasti). Charcuterie is a modern framing; the Italian period lens is salumi with fruit, bread, olives, and a sweet-hot mostarda. Prepared and plated by Dan Parker, the board leaned rustic and abundant—grapes spilling over, glossy olives, rosemary releasing aroma as diners reached in.

Period Context: Salumi & Mostarda

While “charcuterie” is a French term, the Italian table has long featured salumi—prosciutto, pancetta, lardo, coppa, and regional salami—paired with breads, olives, grapes, and preserved fruits. Renaissance sources also describe mostarda (sweet fruit with mustard heat). Bartolomeo Scappi (1570) includes a Mostarda amabile that blends cooked quince and apple with sugar, candied citrus, and mustard essence.

Scappi, Opera (1570), Libro II, cap. 276 — “Per far Mostarda amabile”
Quince and apples cooked with wine & sugar, worked with candied citrus and spiced with mustard—pounded to a smooth, sweet-hot sauce.

For this feast I used a modern, chutney-style mostarda for ease and flavor balance (link below), which sits comfortably in the same family even if the texture and acidity are more contemporary.

Mostarda: Period vs. Modern (quick comparison)

How Scappi’s mostarda differs from the modern chutney used at feast

Aspect	Period (Scappi, 1570)	Modern Chutney Used	Practical Notes
Fruits	Quince & apples; candied citrus peels	Apples & pears; dried cherries/cranberries	Both seasonal & flexible; quince gives classic perfume
Sweet/acid	Sugar + wine + grape must	Sugar + white wine + cider vinegar	Modern reads more “chutney” from vinegar
Heat	Mustard essence/seed	Mustard seed + ground mustard + cayenne	Adjust heat post-cook to taste
Texture	Smooth, pounded sauce	Chunky, spoonable conserve	Either pairs well with salumi & cheese
Make-ahead?	Yes — improves with rest	Yes — 3–4 weeks refrigerated	Ideal for feast workflow

Elven Lembas – Tolkien-Inspired Sweet Cream Biscuits

Elven Lembas (Sweet Cream Biscuits)

The famed waybread of the Elves—simple, sustaining, and surprisingly tender.

Our take is a lightly sweet cream biscuit (think quick scone) that bakes up soft inside with gentle crunch on top. Perfect for tea, travel, or—naturally—second breakfast.

Apple & Blackberry Tartlets – Hobbit-Inspired Dessert

Apple & Blackberry Tartlets

“I could eat anything in the wide world now… but not an apple!” — Fili

Rustic tartlets brimming with orchard apples and hedgerow blackberries, glossed with a spoon of jam. They’re simple, juicy, and very Shire-coded.

Pizza di Molti Strati – A Renaissance Baklava-Style Pastry with Elderflower & Rosewater

Despite the familiar name, this 16th-century “pizza” from Scappi bears no resemblance to modern flatbreads. Instead, it’s a delicate multi-layered pastry, brushed with butter, dusted with sugar and elderflower, and bathed in rosewater syrup. It’s likely a descendant of early Middle Eastern “baklava”‑style desserts—transmitted along Silk Road routes and adopted by Italian Renaissance cooks.

Historical Background

The tradition of layered pastry desserts originates in Middle Eastern and Byzantine cuisines. A 13th-century Arabic confection called lauzinaj—almond paste wrapped in ultra-thin dough and drenched in syrup—was an early ancestor to European versions. Phyllo dough itself traces back to Ancient Greek and Ottoman pastry techniques.

By the 16th century, Italian cooks like Scappi adapted the concept into a simplified “cold layered pizza,” blending Western sugars, elderflower, and rosewater into a visually striking—yet humble—pastry.

A Historical Journey Through Layered Pastry

This “pizza di molti strati” connects to a rich, layered history of syrup-drenched pastry desserts—evolving from Greco-Roman flat cakes to Byzantine, Arabic, and Ottoman specialties, finally taking elegant form in Renaissance Italy.

• Greco-Roman plakous & placenta – Layered pastries with dough, cheese, and honey. Cato the Elder’s placenta cake describes alternating layers of dough and cheese, baked and sweetened with honey.
• Byzantine koptoplakous – A nut-filled, syrup-drenched cake from Constantinople, widely regarded as an early form of baklava. Cited in culinary studies on Byzantine dessert culture.
• Arabic lauzinaj – Medieval almond paste pastries wrapped in thin dough and scented with rosewater. See: Scents and Flavors – Early Baklava Recipe.
• Ottoman Baklava & Phyllo Mastery – Ottoman chefs refined paper-thin dough layering in imperial kitchens. Syrups, nuts, and floral waters became standard. See Baklava – Wikipedia.
• Italian Renaissance Adaptation – Scappi’s 1570 *pizza di molti strati* replaces nuts with elderflower, and introduces a cold-serving presentation. It reflects Italy’s interpretation of a global dessert tradition.
  🍽️ What’s in a Name? A Slice of Pizza’s Etymology
  
  The word pizza may conjure images of tomato sauce and cheese—but its linguistic roots tell a far older story. The earliest known use dates to 997 CE in a Latin document from Gaeta, Italy, referring to a simple “focaccia”-style bread. But where the term *actually* comes from remains debated:

  • Ancient Greek pikte ("fermented pastry") or pitta ("flatbread")
  • Latin pinsa (from pinsere, “to press or flatten”)
  • Old High German bizzo or pizzo (“a bite” or “mouthful”)
  • Italian pizzicare (“to pluck” quickly from the oven)
  • Even Aramaic pita, referring to flatbread

  Linguists and food historians—like Jim Chevallier—have explored these etymologies in depth. In Scappi’s 1570 *Opera*, “pizza” still referred to a layered or folded pastry, not the tomato-covered dish we know today.
  
  Source: Linguistic and historical research courtesy of Jim Chevallier. For more, see discussions on Facebook and works on bread and early pizza history.

Original Recipe (Scappi, 1570)

“Per fare la pizza di molti strati, comunemente freddi pasta secca a strati: pigli uno foglio di pasta tirata sottile... tra ciascuno spargi burro, zucchero, ed erbe di sambuco... e quando è cotta servi fredda con zucchero e acqua di rose.”
—Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570)

Modern English Translation

“To make a pizza of many layers, commonly served cold: take a sheet of pasta rolled out thin... between each one sprinkle butter, sugar, and elder flowers... and when it is cooked, serve cold with sugar and rosewater.”

Renaissance Kitchen Imagery

Woodcut from Scappi’s Opera (1570), showing layered pastry prep and kitchen tools.

“Pizza di Molti Strati” Recipe (Scappi, 1570)

Ingredients

• ½ pack filo (phyllo) dough (homemade if time allows)
• ¼ lb butter, melted
• 1 cup sugar
• 2 Tbsp dried elderflower
• Rosewater, to drizzle

Method

1. Preheat oven to 400 °F (or follow filo package instructions).
2. Keep melted butter warm. Lay one sheet of filo in a greased tart pan.
3. Brush with butter, dust with sugar & elderflower. Layer three sheets, then repeat until 12 sheets are used, finishing with sugar & elderflower.
4. Slice into triangles. Bake until golden brown.
5. Let cool, then serve cold with a drizzle of rosewater.

If serving a small group, homemade phyllo is highly recommended—it adds freshness and flavor.

🌸 Floral Flourishes:
Elderflower and rosewater were prized in Renaissance kitchens for their fragrance and humoral balance. In this pastry, they elevate simple layers into something aromatic, symbolic, and beautiful.

Trays of Pizza di Molti Strati and Mele Cotogne stufate con pignoli, acqua rosa, e zuccaro — quince stewed with pine nuts, rosewater, and sugar — ready for service at Flaming Gryphon 12th Night, 2024.

Want to make this for your next feast? Try homemade filo—it’s elegant, surprisingly satisfying, and perfect with a cup of warm spiced tea.

Primary Source Access

• Scappi’s Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570) – Archive.org
• Full Italian Text on Google Books (1570 Edition)

Piatti de marzapani frigiati di oro - Plates of golden fried marzipan

Plates of Golden Fried Marzipan: A Renaissance Delight from Messisbugo

Among the lavish sweets presented at the 12th Night 2024 feast were these exquisite morsels: golden fried marzipan parcels inspired by Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s 16th-century banquet manual. As a court steward to the Duke of Ferrara, Messisbugo carefully documented not only recipes but the artistry of elite Renaissance dining. One such recipe, Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro, reflects both culinary skill and a love for edible ornament.

Original Italian (Messisbugo, 1549)

Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro: Prendi marzapane, et fanne certi tondi o quadrelli, et involgili in una sfoglia sottile fatta di pasta, et friggili con buon strutto caldo; et cavati che saranno, spolverizzali di zucchero, et ponli in piatti, et sopra vi metterai dell’oro fino, se vorrai fare bella cosa.

English Translation

Plates of golden fried marzipan: Take marzipan and form small rounds or squares. Wrap them in a thin pastry sheet, and fry them in good hot lard. Once they are removed, sprinkle with sugar and place them on dishes. If you wish to make a beautiful presentation, place fine gold on top.

Modern Interpretation (Serves 8–12)

Ingredients

• 1 frozen pie pastry (or homemade pastry dough)
• 1 1/2 cups almond flour
• 1 cup powdered sugar
• 3 tbsp water
• 1 tsp rosewater
• 1/2 tsp "common spices" (e.g., cinnamon, clove, nutmeg)

Instructions

1. Roll out the pie pastry as thin as possible.
2. Mix together almond flour, sugar, water, rosewater, and spices to form a soft marzipan dough.
3. Cut pastry into rounds or squares. Add 1 tsp of filling to each, fold over and seal.
4. Fry in hot oil until golden. Drain and sprinkle with sugar before serving.

Historical Context: Marzipan in Italian Renaissance Cuisine

Marzipan was considered a luxurious ingredient in Renaissance Italy, associated with wealth, celebration, and spectacle. Made from almonds and sugar—both costly imports—it was often shaped into elaborate sculptures or used in gilded dishes like this one. Serving it fried and topped with gold or saffron was a way to display status and culinary refinement.

The origins of marzipan are widely debated. Some trace it to the Middle East, introduced into Europe via Arab-Spanish cuisine, while others credit Italian apothecaries who sold almond-based pastes as medicinal treats. By the 15th and 16th centuries, it had become a staple of courtly desserts across Italy, Germany, and Iberia.

Research Note: This modern interpretation was informed in part by the Italian historical food blog Cucina Medievale, a trusted source for Italian Renaissance culinary research and one of our favorite reference sites.

Source Access

The original recipe appears in Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s Banchetti, composizioni di vivande et apparecchio generale (Venice, 1549). A digitized facsimile is available via the Internet Archive. (Note: the searchable text may be corrupted, but the PDF version is accurate.)

See all dishes from the 12th Night 2024 feast by browsing the 12th Night tag or checking out this collection.

Related Recipes: You might also enjoy Struffoli: Honeyed Fried Dough, another Renaissance sweet served alongside the marzipan at this feast.

Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

🍯 Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

Honeyed Struffoli with Candied Fruit, Served with Marzipan at the 12th Night 2024 Feast
A modern interpretation of Scappi’s 16th-century recipe, these golden morsels were served as part of the appetizer selection.

As part of the 12th Night 2024 feast, guests were greeted with beautiful trays of struffoli — crisp, golden morsels glazed in warm honey and crowned with jeweled candied fruit. This appetizer, adapted from Bartolomeo Scappi’s 16th-century cookbook Opera, captures the festive spirit and elegant artistry of Renaissance banquet tables.

🍽️ Explore the Full Feast: See the complete 12th Night 2024 Menu to discover other historical dishes served during the event.

Scappi was a master cook to Pope Pius V, and his recipes reflect the sophistication of high court cuisine in Italy. These honeyed fritters, served cold, would have dazzled diners with their texture and ornamentation. The original text appears in Libro Quinto, Cap. CXXXV, and can be found in resources like Domenico Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina.

Scappi’s Original Italian (Cap. CXXXV):

Attanfi dieci oua fresche nate di quel giorno, & impastinsicon esse fior di farina alquanto piu liquida della fopradetta, & per fpatio di mezz’horasia ben rimenata sopra la tauola, & poi distendasi essa pasta in ruotoli sottili, come se si volesse fare ciambellette...

...con un coltello si taglierà e i ruotoli a dadi, & tagliati che saranno in gran numero, si lasceranno alquanto rasciugare, & poi con strutto che non sia troppo caldo, si friggeranno, avvertendo che non piglino troppo colore, & con la cocchiara forata cavisino, e si lascino scolare, poi habbisi una cazzuola con mele schiumato che sia ben caldo, & frigghifino in esso mele, dandoli una volta, & subito si cavino, & cavati che saranno, faccinsene castelli, & altre fantafie, & servinofreddi.

🍋 Modern Recipe: Honeyed Struffoli (Serves 8)

This version of struffoli preserves the festive spirit of Scappi's recipe while adapting it for a modern kitchen. These delightful bites can be made ahead and assembled just before serving.

Ingredients

• 2⅔ cups flour
• 4½ tbsp unsalted butter
• 1 tbsp lemon juice
• Pinch of salt
• 2 medium eggs
• ⅔ cup sugar
• Zest of 1 orange
• Zest of ½ lemon

For Garnish

• 1⅓ cups honey
• Silver or gold sprinkles
• Candied cherries
• Candied orange peel

Instructions

1. In a large bowl, combine flour, softened butter, salt, sugar, citrus zest, lemon juice, and eggs. Mix vigorously by hand until a rough dough forms.
2. Turn dough onto a floured surface and knead until smooth. Wrap in plastic and refrigerate for at least 2 hours.
3. After chilling, divide dough into 1 cm wide ropes and roll out. Cut into small pieces, about ⅓ inch in size.
4. Heat oil to 325°F. Fry pieces in small batches until golden brown. Remove and drain on paper towels.
5. Warm honey gently in a pan. Add the fried pieces and stir to coat.
6. Arrange on a platter in a mound or ring. Garnish with sprinkles and candied fruit. Serve at room temperature.

Storage Tip: Fried dough can be made up to 2–3 days in advance. Store in an airtight container and glaze with honey just before serving.

🧾 Translating Scappi: Then vs. Now

Scappi’s original recipe begins with a rich dough made from “ten fresh eggs of the day,” kneaded with fine flour until soft and elastic. Our modern version keeps the egg-based richness, but scales it for today’s kitchens—using two eggs along with butter and citrus for added aroma and softness.

Scappi instructs the cook to roll and cut the dough into “dadi” (dice), which are dried slightly and then fried in strutto (pork fat). We preserve the shape and technique but fry in neutral oil at 325°F for ease and availability. Once cooked, the pieces are tossed in “skimmed honey,” a process mirrored in our version by gently warming the honey and folding the fritters in until glazed. His final flourish—stacking the morsels into “castles and other fancies”—is echoed in our presentation, topped with candied fruit and festive sprinkles.

📚 Inspiration

This recipe was inspired by La Singolare Dottrina di M. Domenico Romoli and Scappi’s Opera, foundational texts in Renaissance culinary tradition.

Try Another Dish from the Feast: Don’t miss our recipe for Tortelletti d’Herba alla Lombarda, a savory herb-filled pasta that accompanied these sweet fritters at the table.

Tags: 12th Night, SCA Feast, Historical Recipes, Renaissance Cooking, Bartolomeo Scappi, Medieval Appetizer, Struffoli, Italian Holiday Food

Itria – Sesame Seed Biscuit & >Basyniai – Fig and Walnut Cakes Ancient Roman Sweets

Itria – Sesame Seed Biscuit

Course: Mensa Secunda (Dessert)
Origin: Ancient Rome
Served: Cooled, end of meal
Event: Push for Pennsic 2004 – Early Roman Feast

Historical Background

Sesame and honey confections were a beloved Roman treat, often enjoyed at the end of a banquet. The Greek "pasteli" and Roman "iritia" (or "itria") bear close resemblance to these nut-and-seed sweets, sometimes served wrapped or portioned as single bites for the convivium’s conclusion.

Modern Interpretation

Ingredients

• 1 cup sesame seeds
• 3/4 cup chopped mixed nuts
• 3/4 cup clear honey

Instructions

1. Toast sesame seeds and nuts at 350°F until lightly golden.
2. Boil honey, skim, and simmer gently for 7 minutes.
3. Stir in toasted seeds and nuts, mix well.
4. Spread into greased tray to cool slightly, then shape into balls.
5. Wrap in paper pieces. Serve at the end of the meal with fruit.

Basyniai – Fig and Walnut Cakes

Course: Mensa Secunda (Dessert)
Origin: Ancient Rome
Served: Warm
Event: Push for Pennsic 2004 – Early Roman Feast

Historical Background

These pastries reflect Rome’s love for sweets combining fruit, nuts, and honey—often fried and drenched in syrup. Figs and walnuts were common ingredients, symbolic of both prosperity and fertility. Variants of this style appear in both Roman and Greek sources, sometimes folded in dough or layered like modern baklava.

Modern Interpretation

Pastry Ingredients

• 7 oz flour
• 2 oz olive oil
• 3 oz water

Filling Ingredients

• 3 oz walnuts
• 1 oz dried figs
• Olive oil for frying
• 3 oz warmed honey

Instructions

1. Combine flour, oil, and water. Knead into smooth dough and let rest 1 hour.
2. Grind walnuts and figs into thick paste.
3. Roll out dough thinly and cut into 2.5" rounds. Add 1 tsp filling, seal with another round.
4. Fry in oil until golden. Drain and drizzle with honey. Serve warm.

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🍷 Want more recipes from this feast?

Explore the other dishes served at the Early Roman Feast – Push for Pennsic, July 9–11, 2004:

• Cucumeres (Braised Cucumber)
• Lucanicae (Grilled Sausages)
• Epityrum (Olives)
• Moretum (Herbed Cheese Spread)
• Piadina (Flatbread)
• Petaso paro Mustacei (Smoked Ham with Sweet Wine Cakes)
• Erebinthoi Knakosymmigeis (Chickpeas with Saffron)
• Krambe (Roman Cabbage)

Egg Leaveners: A Historical Journey from Renaissance Biscottini to Modern Baking

Mostaccioli a la Romana - Almond "Cakes" & Biscottini di zuccaro - Sugar Biscuits

Introduction: The Role of Eggs in Historical Leavening

Long before baking powder and baking soda revolutionized kitchens, cooks relied on clever, natural methods to bring lightness and lift to breads, cakes, and cookies. Among these, eggs stood out as a versatile, accessible, and surprisingly effective leavening agent—especially prized in pastries, biscuits, and delicate baked goods.

Yeast and barm starters fermented doughs, while early chemical leaveners like potash and hartshorn offered quick rising alternatives. But eggs, with their unique physical properties, provided bakers a reliable way to create tender, airy textures without fermentation or chemicals.

How Eggs Leaven: The Science Behind the Rise

• When egg whites are beaten or folded into batters, their proteins unfold and trap tiny air bubbles, creating a stable foam.
• During baking, these trapped air pockets expand with heat, causing the mixture to rise and set into a tender, airy crumb.
• This mechanical leavening doesn’t rely on fermentation or chemical reactions, allowing quicker and often more predictable results.
• Separating yolks and whites further refines control—whipped whites beaten to soft or stiff peaks can fine-tune texture and volume.

While yolks add richness and tenderness, the foaming power that lifts the batter mainly comes from the whites.

Historically, chicken eggs were common, but goose and duck eggs—larger and richer—were prized in special recipes. Coastal and rural areas might use quail or pheasant eggs, subtly affecting richness and leavening power. Variations in egg size and composition required cooks to carefully adjust techniques and ratios.

Cultural and Medicinal Significance of Eggs

Eggs weren’t just functional ingredients—they carried cultural and medical meanings. In medieval and Renaissance humoral theory, foods were classified by qualities like hot, cold, moist, and dry, believed to affect bodily balance.

Eggs were considered “warm and moist,” balancing “cold” or “dry” ingredients such as certain vegetables or grains. This philosophy shaped recipe construction and timing, elevating eggs beyond mere ingredients to symbols of health, harmony, and even seasonality.

Egg Leavening Compared to Yeast and Chemical Leaveners

Different leavening methods produced distinct textures and flavors:

• Yeast breads develop chewy crumbs and complex flavors through fermentation. They have longer shelf life but require time and precise conditions to rise.
• Egg-leavened goods like sponges, biscuits, and small cakes offer delicate crumb and richness. They rely on mechanical aeration and are best consumed fresh due to higher moisture and lack of preservative fermentation.
• Chemical leaveners such as potash and hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) emerged later, yielding quick rise and crisp texture but sometimes imparting strong flavors.

Together, these methods gave bakers a versatile toolkit, tailored for occasions from daily bread to grand banquets.

Historical Context and Development

Eggs as leaveners have roots in antiquity. Ancient Roman texts like Apicius’ De Re Coquinaria (4th–5th century CE) include recipes enriched with eggs, implying leavening roles (Dalby, 2003). By medieval times, cookery manuscripts showed increasing sophistication, recognizing eggs’ ability to trap air and lighten crumb (Toussaint-Samat, 1992).

The Italian Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) was pivotal. Bartolomeo Scappi’s Opera dell’Arte del Cucinare (1570) details egg-leavened tortelletti, sponges, and biscotti. This knowledge spread across Europe, influencing French and English baking (Albala, 2011). English texts like Forme of Cury reflect local adaptations.

Eggs’ “warm and moist” classification under humoral theory guided recipe design and usage by season and constitution (Fissell, 2010). Socioeconomic factors also influenced egg use; while chickens were common, eggs were seasonal and sometimes scarce, reserved for special occasions or wealthier households (Lea & Ward, 2003).

Pre-1600 Examples of Egg-Leavened Baked Goods

Fifteenth-century manuscripts document egg-leavened baked goods predating chemical leaveners. Italian biscottini—crisp cookies folding whipped egg whites into sweetened dough—are well attested (Scappi, 1570). English texts like Forme of Cury (ca. 1390) describe egg-based cakes and biscuits aerated by beating (Leahy, 1999).

Typical ingredients included wheat flour, honey or sugar, eggs (whole or separated), and spices like almonds, citrus peel, and cinnamon (Toussaint-Samat, 1992). Egg whites were hand-beaten to a stable foam, then folded carefully to preserve air bubbles, producing tender crumb (Smith, 2013).

Success depended on whipping and folding skill. Recipes emphasized “enough” eggs and beating “well,” reflecting practical rather than precise measures (Albala, 2007). These treats, labor-intensive and seasonal, were reserved for feasts, showcasing culinary artistry.

Post-1600 Innovations and Refinements

The 17th century brought refined egg-leavened baking with dedicated sponges and pastries relying on egg foam science. Cookbooks like La Varenne’s Le Cuisinier François (1651) and Woolley’s The Queen-like Closet (1672) describe precise beating and folding techniques for tender crumb (La Varenne, 1651; Woolley, 1672).

Egg whites were whipped to varying stiffness and folded gently—foundational for sponges and foams still popular today. Though chemical leaveners like hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) appeared, egg foam remained preferred for subtle flavor and texture (Albala, 2011).

Regional variation thrived: French genoise sponges favored gentle folding with minimal chemical leaveners (Montagné, 1938), while English Victoria sponge layered jam and cream, highlighting egg-leavened richness (Toussaint-Samat, 1992). Italy preserved airy biscottini and pan di Spagna, blending Renaissance techniques with local tastes.

“To whip eggs to the proper consistency requires both patience and finesse. Early bakers used careful hand motions to achieve soft, medium, or stiff peaks, each suited to different textures.”
— Adapted from Le Cuisinier François (1651)

Hartshorn — The Predecessor to Baking Powder

Before modern baking powder, hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) was a common chemical leavener in Europe. Derived from powdered deer antlers, it created crisp, light biscuits but sometimes imparted a distinct ammonia aroma, making egg foam the preferred leavening for delicate cakes and pastries (Albala, 2011).

While effective, hartshorn’s scent was off-putting to some, leading to the development of modern baking powders in the 19th century.

Featured Recipe: Italian Renaissance Biscottini

Ingredients

• 3 large egg whites
• 150g (3/4 cup) granulated sugar
• 150g (1 1/2 cups) finely ground almonds (almond flour)
• 1 teaspoon lemon zest (optional)
• 1/2 teaspoon ground cinnamon (optional)
• Pinch of salt

Preparation

1. Preheat oven to 325°F (160°C). Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.
2. Whip egg whites with salt to soft peaks. Gradually add sugar while whipping to stiff, glossy peaks.
3. Gently fold in almonds, lemon zest, and cinnamon, preserving airiness.
4. Pipe or spoon dollops onto baking sheet, spacing about 2 inches apart.
5. Bake for 20–25 minutes until dry to the touch and lightly golden.
6. Cool completely on a wire rack before serving.

Tips:

• Avoid overbeating the egg whites to maintain tenderness.
• Baking at a moderate temperature dries cookies evenly without excess browning.
• Experiment with savory variations like minced prosciutto or spices like anise seeds.

Egg Leaveners in the Broader Context of Historical Baking

Egg leavening coexisted with yeast fermentation, chemical agents like potash and hartshorn, and mechanical methods such as creaming butter and sugar.

• Yeast made staple chewy breads with long shelf life.
• Chemical leaveners enabled quick, crisp biscuits but sometimes had strong flavors.
• Egg leavening was ideal for delicate pastries and cakes, prized for lightness without fermentation or chemicals.

Egg-leavened goods were luxurious and reserved for special occasions, contrasting with everyday breads. Due to higher moisture and fat, they were more perishable and best enjoyed fresh.

Modern classics like genoise, pan di Spagna, and ladyfingers descend from these methods, underscoring their timeless appeal.

Timeless Traditions: The Enduring Legacy of Egg Leavening

What’s truly striking is how little the fundamental technique of egg leavening has changed over the centuries. The modern almond biscuit recipe above isn’t far removed from the Renaissance biscottini crafted in 17th-century kitchens.

The same simple yet precise steps—whipping egg whites to glossy foam, folding in dry ingredients gently, and baking at a careful temperature—have carried through generations.

This continuity is a testament to the elegance and effectiveness of these age-old methods. Rather than being “primitive,” historical recipes display remarkable sophistication and intuitive understanding of food science long before modern chemistry.

By baking with these techniques today, you’re connecting directly with a rich culinary heritage. Each whisk and fold echoes the skilled hands of bakers past, bridging time and culture through shared craftsmanship.

Try It Yourself

Whether you’re a history buff or a curious baker, these egg-leavened recipes invite you to whisk your way through centuries of culinary tradition. Try your hand at Renaissance biscottini and taste the legacy of a time-honored technique.

For more on historical leaveners, explore our Forgotten Leaveners series covering potash, yeast, and chemical methods.

Support our work on Ko-fi for exclusive recipes and guides, helping keep history alive on your table.

Suggested Internal Links

• Forgotten Leaveners Series: Potash and Pearl Ash
• Yeast and Barm Starters in Historical Baking (TBD)
• Chemical Leaveners: Hartshorn and Ammonium Bicarbonate

References

• Albala, K. (2011). Food in Early Modern Europe. Greenwood Press.
• Albala, K. (2007). Food in Early Modern Europe. Greenwood Press.
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