A Dynere of Flesche — John Russell’s Medieval Feast and the Logic of Digestion

Roasted peacock served “re-plumed,” a classic showpiece in late-medieval banquets. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Introduction

In the mid-fifteenth century, court official John Russell compiled the Boke of Nurture (Harley MS 4011), a manual of etiquette, service, and feasting. Among its most intriguing passages is “A Dynere of Flesche”—a model feast for a flesh day. At first glance it reads like excess: swan, peacock, venison, custards, jellies, fritters, sotelties. But beneath the display lies clear order, guided by humoral theory and the theory of digestion.

• Humoral theory:

• Foods are classified hot/cold, moist/dry.
• The goal was balance — so heavy/dry meats might be paired with moist/sweet sauces, or cooling jellies follow heating roasts.

The Ideal Temperament

Humoral theory didn’t just classify food — it also described people. The ideal man, according to Galenic medicine, was hot and moist: warm in spirit, strong in digestion, balanced in humors. Too much heat could cause choler (anger, fevers); too much cold led to melancholy. Feasts like Russell’s were arranged to steer everyone—young, old, male, female—toward this balanced, “ideal” state after eating.

• Theory of Digestion (stomach as a fireplace model):

  • Light, quick-digesting foods first (whet the appetite, “open the stomach”).

  • Heavy meats mid-meal (need the appetite at full flame).

  • Cooling or binding foods at the end (to “close the stomach” and aid digestion).

  • Spices and hippocras (spiced wine) seal the stomach and prevent putrefaction.

Feasting, Status, and Seasonality

Russell’s menu was a model feast—aspirational and didactic. It reflected both status and medical order:

• Luxury foods: swan, peacock, crane, bustard, sea bream inland, imported sugar, almonds, and rice.
• Sotelties: allegorical sugar or pastry sculptures, more about piety and performance than eating.
• Hierarchy: the high table saw the full spread; lower tables ate simpler portions.
• Seasonality: autumn/winter hunting game + preserved foods (brawn, baked quinces, hippocras). Likely a winter festival setting—Christmas or Twelfth Night.

The Logic of the Courses

How Many Did This Feed?

Russell never specifies numbers. Most scholars agree that menus like this modeled an ideal high-table feast, not the full hall of 200+ diners. Lower tables would have received simpler fare, with servants plainer still. The “Dynere of Flesche” was about display and order at the top table, not uniform abundance.

First Course: Awakening the Appetite

The feast begins with brawn of boar with mustard. Preserved brawn (salted/pressed) was hot/dry, paired with mustard (also hot/dry) to stimulate appetite. Then came pottages of herbs, spice, and wine (warm, moist, aromatic), followed by staples—beef and mutton, heavy and dry but softened by sauces. Showpieces—pheasant and swan with chawdron sauce, capons, pig, venison bake—balanced humors by variety. The course lifted with leches and fritters, hot/oily appetite stimulants, and paused with a sotelty of the Annunciation.

Why pork first?

Not a roast, but salted/pressed boar. Preservation shifted its qualities hotter/drier. With mustard, it worked as an appetite-opener and prestige symbol.

Beef & mutton early?

Normally heavy, but softened in pottage. Their presence early also reinforced abundance—English tables expected them as staples.

Swan with chawdron

Swan was tough and hot/dry. Prestige demanded its early appearance. Chawdron (entrails sauce) moistened and balanced the dish.

Second Course: Heaviest Roasts & Entremets

The second course starts gently with blancmanger (chicken and almond, moist and white) and jellies (cooling, clarifying). Then came the heaviest fare: venison, kid, fawn, coney, bustard, stork, crane, peacock, heron. These were dry/hot meats, demanding the stomach’s “strongest fire.”

Between them: entremets—custards, pastries, sweet leches—moist refreshers, palate cleansers, and spectacles. A fritter revived appetite, and an angelic sotelty provided allegory and pause.

What are Entremets?

“Between-dishes” that lighten the palate after heavy roasts. Could be custards, jellies, fritters, or allegories. They refreshed digestion and dazzled guests.

Sea bream among roasts?

Fish are cooling and moist, but sea bream inland was a rarity. Its placement showed luxury and variety, more than medical logic.

Fritters everywhere

Appearing in every course, fritters weren’t just sweets. Fried foods (hot/dry) re-stimulated appetite, acting like edible palate cleansers.

Third Course: Stepping Down

Cream of almonds and mawmany were restorative and nourishing. Smaller roasts—curlews, snipes, quails, sparrows—replaced great birds. Moist/cooling dishes returned: perch in jelly, crayfish. Quinces baked (astringent) helped close digestion, alongside sage fritters and spiced leches. A Magi sotelty provided solemn close.

Quinces as Closers

Medieval medical texts praised quinces for their astringency. Baked or stewed, they were thought to “bind the stomach” and prevent excess humors. Their placement late in Russell’s menu follows regimen advice: astringent fruit near the end ensured the feast ended in balance.

Finale: Issue & Sendoff

The issue de table included pippins (apples) with caraway comfits, custard (blaunderelle), wafers, and hippocras. Apples (cold/dry) restrained excess; caraway (hot/dry) dispelled wind; hippocras (spiced wine) “sealed” the stomach.

Apples & Caraway

Bartholomaeus Anglicus: apples “close the stomach and make good digestion.” Andrew Boorde: “rawe apples do stoppe the bely, and do coole a man.” Gerard: caraway comfits “are taken for the winde, and against the collick.” Together: a classic period pairing, served raw with candied spice.

Sotelties

These edible allegories (Annunciation, angels, Magi) weren’t about digestion. They refreshed the spirit and gave rhythm between heavy dishes.

Costly Showpieces

Some dishes weren’t about flavor at all. Peacock and swan were tough and gamey, yet served re-feathered as symbols of prestige. Sea bream inland was a logistical feat, showing the household’s reach. Sugar jellies and sotelties consumed expensive imports, functioning as edible theater. These dishes were declarations of wealth and power as much as food.

Overall Temperament by Course

Hot Cold Moist Dry Astringent

Course / Stage	Overall Temperament	Why this net effect?
First Course	Hot Dry (+Moist from pottages)	Opens with mustard & preserved brawn (hot/dry stimulants), then warm/moist pottages; heavy meats appear early but are sauced. Net effect = warming/activating with a slight dry edge to “open the stomach.”
Second Course	Hot Dry (+ moderated by Moist entremets)	Heaviest roasts (venison, crane, peacock) are hot/dry at peak digestion; custards/jellies (entremets) punctuate to moisten/refresh. Net effect = the feast’s hottest/driest point, tempered between platters.
Third Course	Moist Cool (+ Astringent close)	Steps down with smaller birds and moist/cooling fish in jelly; baked quinces add astringency to begin closure; sage fritters give brief warmth without flipping the net trend.
Finale (Issue & Boute-hors)	Cool Dry → sealed by HotDry (hippocras)	Raw apples + caraway comfits = cool/dry & wind-dispelling; wafers are light/dry. Final seal with hippocras (hot/dry) “closes the stomach” and guards against putrefaction.

Show SCA stages with temperament

SCA Stage	Temperament	Notes
On Table / Entrance	HotDry	Mustard & brawn stimulate and announce status.
Pottages & Gentle Dishes	MoistWarm	Opens and soothes the stomach.
Great Roasts	HotDry	Peak heat/dryness; serve when digestion is strongest.
Entremets	MoistCool	Palate/digestion refreshers between roasts.
Lighter Birds & Fish	MoistCool	Step-down phase toward closure.
Dessert / Fruit	Astringent	Begins the “binding” close (quinces, etc.).
Issue	CoolDry	Raw apples + comfits; wafers light and crisp.
Boute-hors	HotDry	Hippocras seals the stomach.

Feast Planning with Russell’s Menu

For SCA feast planners, Russell’s feast maps neatly into modern service frameworks:

Downloadable Resources:

• Russell’s Feast Framework (Filled Example)
• Blank Feast Planning Template

Stage	Dishes from Russell’s Menu	Digestive Role
On Table / Entrance	Mustard & brawn	Stimulates appetite, prestige
Pottages	Pottage, blancmanger, jellies	Gentle starters, open stomach
Great Roasts	Beef, mutton, venison, swan, peacock, bustard, crane, etc.	Heaviest, driest meats; mid-digestion
Entremets	Custards, pastries, fritters, sotelties	Palate refreshers, visual allegories
Lighter Birds & Fish	Curlew, quail, perch in jelly, crayfish	Moist/cooling, easier to digest
Dessert / Fruit	Quinces baked, sage fritters	Astringent closure, sharpen digestion
Issue	Apples with caraway, wafers	Refresh and bind, dispel wind
Boute-hors	Hippocras	Spiced wine to seal digestion

Mythbusting Russell’s Feast

• “Feasts were chaotic.” ❌ They followed medical choreography.
• “Everyone ate the same food.” ❌ Hierarchy dictated portions.
• “Peacock and swan were delicacies.” ❌ They were tough; value lay in spectacle.
• “Sugar was common.” ❌ It was a costly luxury spice.
• “Fritters were desserts only.” ❌ They appear in every course as stimulants.
• “Fruit was always cooked.” ❌ The pippins at issue were raw, paired with comfits.

✅ Dos & ❌ Don’ts by Course

• First Course
  ✅ Pair heavy meats with moist dishes (pottage, sauce)
  ❌ Don’t open with multiple cold/moist foods — they dull appetite
• Second Course
  ✅ Interleave entremets between heavy roasts
  ❌ Don’t serve only hot/dry roasts back-to-back — digestion overload
• Third Course
  ✅ Use cooling/moist dishes (fish, almond cream) to “calm the stomach”
  ❌ Don’t drop in new hot/dry meats here — it reverses the descent
• Finale
  ✅ Always end with an astringent fruit + spiced closer
  ❌ Don’t pile sweets without balance — needs closure to “seal digestion”

Conclusion

Russell’s Dynere of Flesche shows that medieval dining was deliberate: humoral balance, digestive order, spectacle, and hierarchy all interlaced. What seems like excess was careful choreography. For modern readers—and especially SCA feast stewards—it offers both inspiration and a reminder: a medieval feast was an art of health and performance.

Why this matters today: Russell’s feast reminds us that medieval banquets were not chaotic indulgence, but carefully balanced systems of health, status, and art. It’s a reminder that food has always been about more than eating—it shapes identity, power, and performance at the table.

Glossary: a few terms

• Chawdron: rich sauce of entrails/offal.
• Entremets: “between-dishes” (light/spectacular interludes).
• Sotelty: edible allegory/sculpture, more for the eyes than the stomach.
• Issue de table: light closing bites after courses.
• Boute-hors: sendoff drink(s), e.g., hippocras.

Source: John Russell, Boke of Nurture, Harleian MS 4011, fol. 171 (c. 1460).

Further reading

• Flandrin & Montanari (eds.), Food: A Culinary History — feast structure.
• Hieatt & Butler (eds.), Curye on Inglysch — Middle English recipes.
• Adamson, Food in Medieval Times — ingredients, trade, status.

Flavors of the Flower: 5 Medieval Recipes Using Edible Blooms

Flavors of the Flower: 5 Medieval Recipes Using Edible Blooms

Woodcut of a Gilliflower from John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629). Parkinson praised the gilliflower’s “spicy sent” and its usefulness in syrups and conserves.

In the late Middle Ages, edible flowers adorned more than just gardens—they featured prominently on elite banquet tables as key ingredients in both sweet and savory dishes. From the delicate rose and primrose to more assertive blooms like hawthorn and violet, flowers served to tint, scent, and thicken custards, broths, and pottages. These floral additions were not only visually and gastronomically appealing but also aligned with humoral theory: the belief that food's temperamental qualities could support the physical and emotional balance of the diner.

This post is a curated collection of medieval recipes that utilize edible flowers for more than just decoration. You'll find my modern take on Rede Rose, a silky custard infused with rose petals, alongside historical dishes and inspiration for planting your own edible flower garden. If you’re interested in recreating these recipes, don’t miss the section on safe modern substitutes and preservation techniques. The methods and virtues of these flowers are reflected not only in recipe manuscripts but in early gardening manuals and herbal lore—including John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole, A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

📜 Archived Reference: Medieval Herbs We Grow Chiefly as Flowers

Compiled by Agnes deLanvallei (March 2005)
Originally published at KeelerAnderson.net; now preserved via the Internet Archive.
→ View the full original table

Note: These flowers were edible in the Middle Ages, though many are no longer commonly eaten. Always verify organic, untreated sources before consuming. Individuals with allergies should avoid plants in families known to trigger reactions.

Common Name	Scientific Name	Family	Notes / Uses
Borage	Borago officinalis	Boraginaceae	Flowers and leaves eaten raw or cooked; safe and uplifting
Calendula (Pot Marigold)	Calendula officinalis	Asteraceae	Used in salads and broths; petals are edible and medicinal
Carnation / Gillyflower	Dianthus spp.	Caryophyllaceae	Edible flowers; valued for scent and beauty
Lavender	Lavandula officinalis	Lamiaceae	Used for fragrance and culinary syrups
Rose	Rosa spp.	Rosaceae	Petals used in syrups, custards, and conserves
Violet	Viola odorata	Violaceae	Scented variety used in cooking and syrups
Pansy / Heartsease	Viola tricolor	Violaceae	Safe edible flowers; used ornamentally

Original Compilation: Agnes deLanvallei, 2005. Published at KeelerAnderson.net (archived 2016).
Content adapted under fair use for educational and archival preservation. Original archive link: Wayback Machine.

Want to explore more about historical edible flowers? Visit Agnes de Lanvallei’s Medieval Herbs We Grow Chiefly as Flowers—an excellent resource on what was grown, used, and enjoyed during the period.

Section 1: Featured Recipe – Rede Rose

Rede Rose is a 15th-century English custard enriched with almond milk and egg yolks and delicately flavored with rose petals. In my interpretation, I blend the ingredients and gently cook them in a double boiler until thickened to a smooth consistency. The result is a creamy, floral custard with nostalgic charm and subtle elegance. It was well received—three taste-testers all went back for more.

🔍 Read the full Rede Rose recipe and interpretation here

Section 2: The Other Floral Recipes

Medieval cooks used flowers not just for flavor but also for fragrance, symbolism, and aesthetic beauty. The following recipes represent a variety of culinary traditions from the period—ranging from rich custards to savory pottages and festive garnishes.

• Cviij. Prymerose – A custard thickened with rice flour and scented with primrose flowers. Includes almond milk, ginger, and saffron.
• Cxxvij. Prymerose – Made “in the same manner as the violet dish.”
• Cxxviij. Flowrys of Hawþorn – Prepared “as vyolet,” per the manuscript.
• Vyolette (Sweet Custard Style) – A gentle, egg-thickened custard infused with violet petals.
• Vyolette (With Fruit and Spices) – A richer version with dates, sugar, pine nuts, and almond milk; reminiscent of a floral frumenty.
• Dandelion Greens (Dent-de-lion) – A savory dish exploring dandelion as a medieval edible green.

Note: Some recipes were garnished with gilliflowers purely for presentation rather than flavor, such as Cawdelle Ferry and Pumpes.

Section 3: Historical Culinary Techniques for Flower-Based Dishes

Medieval kitchens employed specific techniques when preparing flower-based recipes. These methods combined practical cooking skills with the medical philosophies of the time:

• Infusion in Liquids: Flowers such as rose, violet, primrose, and lavender were steeped in almond milk, wine, or water to extract their essence and color—techniques echoed in Parkinson and early apothecary texts.
• Thickening Agents: Recipes often used rice flour, egg yolks, or breadcrumbs to create custard-like textures, as seen in Rede Rose and Prymerose.
• Garnishing and Gilding: Petals like gilliflowers and calendula were added as visual flourishes—sometimes even gilded with edible gold for a luxurious touch.
• Layering Flavors: Flowers were combined with dates, sugar, spices, and nuts to balance or enhance the dish, a technique preserved in dishes like Vyolette with Fruit and Spices.
• Medicinal Use: Many flowers were believed to have healing properties aligned with humoral theory. For example, borage was used to “gladden the heart” and violets to cool and comfort the spirit, according to both Parkinson and early modern herbals.

Section 4: Sweet vs. Savory – Matching Flowers to Flavor Profiles

Not all flowers belong in dessert. Here's a guide to choosing edible blooms based on their flavor compatibility—paired with historical insights from John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629):

Best for Sweet Dishes:

• Rose: Floral and fruity; used in custards, jams, and syrups. Parkinson praises it as “the chiefest flower for beauty, smell and use... the conserve of the red rose is of much use among the gentlewomen.”
• Violets: Mildly sweet and delicate; perfect for candying and desserts. Parkinson notes, “The blew Violets are much used in Possets, Syrups, and Conserves... and to comfort the heart.”
• Primrose: Subtly sweet; often used in custards or steeped in sweet wine. Parkinson recommends them for “comforting the brain and spirits, and sweet waters made of them refresh the senses.”
• Gillyflowers (Clove-pinks or Carnations): Though often decorative, Parkinson remarks on their “spicy sent... good in conserves and syrups.”

Best for Savory Dishes:

• Borage: Cucumber-like; great in salads or chilled soups. Parkinson writes, “The flowers are candied, or put into wine to exhilarate the spirits.”
• Calendula (Marigold): Peppery and colorful; used as a saffron substitute in rice or eggs. Parkinson notes, “It is of good use to garnish meats and salads... the broth wherein it is boiled is good to comfort the heart.”
• Chamomile: Mild apple scent; infuses well into teas or syrups. Parkinson calls it “a soother of pain and a comfort to the stomach.”
• Lavender: Intense and perfumed; used sparingly in sugar or honey infusions. Parkinson states, “The flowers steeped in wine... do strengthen the stomach and make the heart merry.”

Section 5: Ensuring Flower Safety in the Garden

If you're planning to grow edible flowers, follow these safety tips to ensure they’re safe to eat. While medieval gardeners like Parkinson wrote at length about the virtues of each bloom, they also relied on intimate plant knowledge and seasonal observation. For modern cooks, extra caution ensures both beauty and safety at the table.

• Use only edible species: Confirm plant identity using reputable sources. Avoid look-alikes that may be toxic.
• Start with culinary-grade or organic seed: Many ornamental flowers are treated with pesticides and are not safe for consumption.
• Grow organically: Avoid herbicides or synthetic sprays; opt for natural pest management or companion planting.
• Harvest responsibly: Pick in the morning after dew has dried. Use only the petals unless the entire flower is known to be edible.
• Clean gently: Rinse flowers in cool water and allow to dry completely before use.
• When in doubt, leave it out: Never eat a flower unless you are certain it is edible and untreated.

For historical gardeners, flower safety was closely tied to herbal knowledge and household management. As A Book of Fruits & Flowers and A Plain Plantain both suggest, flowers were viewed as food, medicine, and memory—requiring both reverence and care.

Section 6: Preserving Flowers – Pickling, Sugaring, and Wine Infusions

Preserving flowers was a vital part of historical kitchen and apothecary life. Whether through vinegar, sugar, or wine, cooks and herbalists ensured that blossoms could be used for flavor, medicine, and beauty long after their season passed. These practices are well documented in early sources like Paradisi in Sole (1629), A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

Pickled Flowers and Floral Vinegars:

Pickling flower buds and petals added brightness to savory dishes and infused subtle floral or herbal notes into vinegars and brines.

• Rosebuds: The 1653 manual preserves rosebuds with vinegar, cinnamon, and cloves for sauces and medicinal syrups.
• Violets: Used in vinegar-based salads and fish sauces. Landrum notes their cooling properties and popularity in gentle syrups.
• Primroses: Often soaked in wine or vinegar; Parkinson describes their use in “sweet waters” to comfort the brain and heart.
• Calendula: Added to broths and herbal vinegars for its warming, cheering effect—referenced in both 17th- and 20th-century texts.

Basic historical-style pickling method:

1. Gently rinse and blanch flower petals or buds.
2. Place in a spiced vinegar solution (e.g., wine vinegar with cloves, mustard seed, or bay leaf).
3. Seal in jars and allow to steep in a cool place for several days.

Sugared and Candied Flowers:

Sweet preservation was both decorative and medicinal. Candied flowers appeared on subtleties, marchpanes, and biscuits, or were simmered into syrups for drinks and electuaries.

• Violets, Roses, Primroses, and Gilliflowers: Parkinson provides detailed instructions for conserves and sugared flowers. The 1653 book includes recipes for drying and candying blossoms for health and beauty. Landrum refers to them as “petals crystallized like poetry.”
• Lavender & Marigold: Sometimes simmered in honey for use in preserves, or added to floral syrups.

Flowers Preserved in Wine:

Infusing wine with flowers was another way to preserve and extract flavor or medicinal value—commonly done in medieval and early modern households:

• Hippocras: A spiced wine infusion including rose or rosemary flowers, used as both a tonic and celebration drink. Parkinson references flowered wines in courtly and apothecary contexts.
• Primrose, Violet, Chamomile, and Borage: Often steeped in wine or ale for “cordial” effects. Landrum records borage wine to uplift the melancholy and primrose wine to refresh the mind.
• Comfrey and Ivy: Soaked in wine with honey for use in healing tinctures—described in the 1653 manual under medicinal preserves.

Preserving flowers in wine, sugar, or vinegar allowed medieval and early modern cooks to keep a garden’s essence through the seasons—transforming fleeting blooms into shelf-stable medicines, syrups, confections, and cordials.

Historical Recipes: Flowers Preserved in Wine, Honey, and Vinegar

Early modern herbal and household texts provide us with several detailed methods for preserving edible flowers. These examples are drawn from Paradisi in Sole, A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), The Good Huswifes Jewell (1596), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

🍷 Flowers in Wine

• Primrose Wine: Steep fresh primrose petals in white wine with sugar. Strain and bottle after several days. Described in Parkinson as a cordial “to comfort the brain and spirits.”
• Borage Wine: Borage flowers were infused in white wine or ale with citrus peel and honey—used to cheer the heart and “drive away melancholy.” Mentioned by Landrum and Parkinson.

🍯 Flowers in Honey or Syrup

• Syrup of Violets: From the 1653 manual. Pound violet petals, steep in warm water, strain, and simmer with sugar. Used for coughs or to sweeten medicinal drinks.
• Honey of Roses: Parkinson includes this soothing preparation. Rose petals are simmered in honey, then strained and stored. Used for ulcers, throat comfort, or cooling electuaries.

🍇 Flowers in Vinegar

• Violet Vinegar: Found in The Good Huswifes Jewell. Violets steeped in wine vinegar with herbs, used for dressing sallets (salads) and preserving greens.
• Marigold Vinegar: Cited in both Parkinson and the 1653 text. Fresh calendula petals steeped in warm vinegar and used in broths, sauces, or as a remedy “to comfort the heart.”

Further Reading: Of March Violets

Explore the poetic and symbolic legacy of violets in “Of March Violets”, a companion piece reflecting on the fragrance, folklore, and meaning of this beloved bloom in medieval and modern imagination.

Whether you're reconstructing a medieval banquet or adding floral flair to a modern meal, edible flowers are a fragrant and flavorful way to connect with the past. These recipes remind us that beauty and sustenance were deeply intertwined in historical cuisine—and they invite us to continue that legacy in our own kitchens today.

⚠️ Reminder: Always use organically grown or culinary-grade flowers. Never consume flowers from florists or treated ornamental plants.

References & Resources

• Parkinson, John. Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629). A foundational English gardening text blending botanical, culinary, and medicinal knowledge. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653). A 17th-century household manual offering flower-based recipes for food, drink, and medicine. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• Landrum, Grace Warren. A Plain Plantain: A Book of Herbal Lore (1911). A lyrical exploration of flower symbolism, history, and folklore. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• Dawson, Thomas. The Good Huswifes Jewell (1596). A Tudor-era cookbook that includes floral syrups, vinegars, and herbal remedies. Read on Internet Archive.
• British Museum Blog. “How to Cook a Medieval Feast: 11 Recipes from the Middle Ages.” britishmuseum.org
• Recipes Project Blog. “Distilling Violets: Women's Recipes and Domestic Knowledge.” recipes.hypotheses.org
• Wikipedia. “Four Thieves Vinegar.” Historical herbal vinegar recipe linked to plague lore. en.wikipedia.org
• MedievalCookery.com. Offers searchable transcriptions of period cookbooks. medievalcookery.com
• Of March Violets. A historical and poetic exploration of violets, including a period recipe for Oil of Violets.
• The Past is a Foreign Pantry. A blog exploring medieval and early modern foodways. thepastisaforeignpantry.com

Revisiting Quince: A Medieval Fruit with Modern Flavor

 

Revisiting Quince: History, Recipes, and Rediscovery

What it is, why it matters, and how to cook with it today—plus links to historical quince recipes!

I. Introduction

In 2014, we explored quince for the first time on this blog. The Kitchen Adventures - Working with Quince, was one of the first articles I published.  Now, with years of experimentation behind us and a growing archive of recipes, we're returning to this fragrant fruit to dig deeper into its history, flavor, and role in historical cuisine.

Quince is a fruit both ancient and enigmatic—celebrated in antiquity, prized in the medieval kitchen, and curiously underused today. Its transformation through cooking is nothing short of alchemy: from rock-hard and mouth-puckering to melting, fragrant, and complex. This article revives quince in all its golden glory—offering techniques, tips, and historical insight to make it relevant for your table again.

II. What Is Quince?

Quince (Cydonia oblonga) is a member of the Rosaceae family, which includes apples, pears, and roses. Though too astringent to eat raw, quince undergoes a remarkable transformation when cooked—its firm flesh softens, its pale color deepens into a rosy amber, and its aroma fills the kitchen with a delicate perfume. Often considered the forgotten cousin of the apple, quince is nuanced, elegant, and quietly captivating.

III. A Long History of Love

Quince has charmed cultures for centuries. Dioscorides praised it in the first century, and it appeared frequently in medieval and Renaissance manuscripts in various forms: poached in honey, preserved with vinegar and spices, or simmered into thick, rich pastes. Known to the Greeks as the "Cydonian apple," quince was later featured in English recipes as chardequynce or quynade—early iterations of modern fruit jellies and marmalades.

Quince in Classical Medicine and Lore

Quinces were praised by herbalists and physicians across antiquity and the Middle Ages. Dioscorides recommended placing peeled quinces in a jar filled with honey, where they would soften into a medicinal treat over the course of a year—this method, called melomeli, was said to settle the stomach.

The Greeks called them kythoni, and Roman authors like Galen categorized quinces as cold and dry in nature. In medieval herbals like Henry Lyte’s 1578 translation of A Nievve Herball, quinces were described in detail: they could "stop the laske," soothe dysentery, prevent headaches from "vapors," and even ensure wise children if eaten during pregnancy.

Dodoens noted two varieties—apple and pear quinces—with the pear-shaped being larger. He described the scent as so fragrant that once the downy skin was removed, they appeared “as yellow as gold.”

Preservation Through Time: From Melomeli to Marmalade

Long before the term “marmalade” came to mean citrus jam, preserved quince was the original treat. Various names and techniques survive in recipes from the 1st to 16th centuries:

• Melomeli: Quince aged in honey for a year, per Dioscorides (1st c.).
• Cidonitum: A Roman and Byzantine jelly with vinegar, honey, ginger, and pepper.
• Chardequynce: A late medieval spiced paste of quince, honey, and ginger—eventually giving way to early marmalades and membrillo.

How to Make Chardequynce (Medieval Quince Paste)

Chardequynce was once served alongside cheese, meats, or at the close of a feast. It's made from cooked quince purée, honey, and warming spices—sometimes including eringo root (sea holly), considered an aphrodisiac in humoral medicine.

Teaser recipe: Simmer peeled, quartered quince until soft. Mash, strain, and cook with honey until thick enough to hold a furrow when stirred. Add ground ginger and (optionally) eringo. Spread into pans to dry. For full instructions, see: Of Quince, Its Nature and Virtues.

📜 Printable Recipe: Chardequynce (Medieval Quince Paste)

Yield: 1 tray of sliced quince paste (stores indefinitely)

Ingredients:

• 1 lb quince – peeled, quartered, seeds removed
• 12 oz honey (or sugar)
• 2¼ tsp chopped ginger
• 1½ tbsp ground ginger
• ¼ lb eringo root powder (optional)

Instructions:

1. Place quince pieces in a pot with just enough water to cover. Simmer until soft.
2. Strain and mash or purée fruit. (Save cooking water, seeds, and peels for jelly.)
3. Return pulp to pot. Stir in honey and cook over low heat, stirring frequently, until thickened—about 45 minutes.
4. Optional: Stir off heat until the paste lightens in color.
5. Mix in chopped ginger, ground ginger, and optional eringo root powder.
6. Spread onto a parchment-lined tray or pan and allow to dry in a cool place for 3–4 weeks.
7. Slice and serve with cheese or as part of a final course.

Note: If you can't find eringo root, substitute with an additional teaspoon of fresh ginger or a few teaspoons of chopped candied angelica or fennel for a similar effect. Or simply omit—it will still taste delicious.

Historical Note: Based on 16th c. English and earlier Greek/Byzantine quince paste traditions. Traditionally stored in wooden boxes or wrapped in oiled paper.

Enhancing and Using Quince in Modern Cooking

Quince is a fragrant, complex fruit that transforms dramatically when cooked. Though it's traditionally used in jams and pastes, quince can shine in a wide variety of savory and sweet applications—when treated with the proper techniques.

Best Cooking Techniques to Enhance Quince Flavor

1. Poaching (Slow Simmering)
   Simmer peeled, sliced quince in water, sugar, and optional aromatics for 1–2 hours.
   Result: Tender, floral, honeyed slices of fruit with a silky texture.
2. Roasting
   Slice and roast quince with honey or butter at 375°F (190°C) for 45–60 minutes.
   Result: Caramelized, aromatic fruit perfect for savory pairings.
3. Braising
   Add to braised meat dishes during the final hour.
   Result: Quince soaks up savory juices and lends fragrance to the dish.
4. Pickling
   Briefly simmer in vinegar brine; chill before using.
   Result: Tart, firm quince for salads or cheese boards.

Modern Applications Beyond Sweets

• Cheese Boards: Pair membrillo with Manchego or blue cheese.
• Glazes & Sauces: Reduce quince poaching syrup for pork or duck.
• Salads & Slaws: Use pickled quince in bitter greens and mustard dressings.
• Grain Bowls: Mix roasted quince into farro, lentils, or barley with herbs.
• Tagines: Add quince to North African stews with lamb, saffron, and cinnamon.

Excellent Pairings to Showcase Quince's Unique Flavor

• Cheese: Manchego, Comté, Gorgonzola, Goat Cheese
• Meat: Duck, Pork, Lamb, Game Meats
• Spices: Cardamom, Cinnamon, Ginger, Star Anise, Saffron
• Fruits/Veg: Apples, Pears, Citrus, Beets, Carrots

Want to make your own?
You can download and print our free recipe card for Chardequynce—a spiced quince paste from the 16th century. Made with honey, ginger, and (optionally) eringo root, it keeps beautifully and pairs with cheese or roasted meats.

More Historic Quince Recipes:

• Quince-Infused Marzipan
• Apples Stewed with Quince and Pignoli Nuts
• Quynade (almond milk cheese flavored with quince)
• Quidinia (Quince Jelly)
• Of Quince: Its Nature and Virtues

Resources & Historical Notes

Primary Sources

• Dioscorides – De Materia Medica
• Harleian MS. 279
• Rembert Dodoens – A Nievve Herball (1578, trans. Henry Lyte)

Reference Texts

• Hieatt, C.B. – The Culinary Recipes of Medieval England
• Wilson, C. – The Book of Marmalade
• Austin, T. – Two Fifteenth-Century Cookery Books

Want More?

Explore more historical recipes and culinary lore under these tags:
Fruit | Confections and Dessert | Jellies and Gelatin

Potash: The Ashes That Raised a Nation

Potash: The Ashes That Raised a Nation

Long before baking powder revolutionized home kitchens, early American bakers demonstrated their ingenuity by using potash—an alkaline residue from wood ash—as a leavening agent. Extracted from hearth ashes, potash enabled cooks to prepare lighter breads and cakes, showcasing their resourcefulness before the advent of commercial yeast or baking soda.

This article builds on our previous piece ‘From Ashes to Antlers’ , which explored the historical use of various natural materials in early American kitchens. Let's take a closer look at potash's role in early American kitchens.

What Is Potash?

Early American cooks made potash (potassium carbonate) by soaking hardwood ashes in water to create lye, then boiling the liquid until it yielded a solid alkaline salt. The name "potash" comes from this process of boiling ashes in pots.

Lye Safety and Myths

• Is lye dangerous? In concentrated form, yes. Historical potash lye was milder but still required care.
• Safe to eat? Yes, when neutralized adequately with acid. The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide.
• Make it today? It's possible, but use gloves and eye protection.
• Myth: "Lye is poison." → Truth: It was a standard kitchen tool for soap, pretzels, and baking.

The Chemistry of Potash Leavening

Potash requires an acid (such as molasses or sour milk) to create carbon dioxide, which helps lift the dough. This simple reaction laid the foundation for early quick breads.

• Source: Hardwood ash
• Type: Potassium carbonate
• Reaction: Potash + Acid → CO₂ → Rise

What Is Pearl Ash?

Pearl ash is refined potash. Makers dissolved potash in water, filtered it, and evaporated the solution to create a whiter, cleaner salt ideal for baking delicate cakes.

• Potash: Crude wood ash residue
• Pearl Ash: Refined, purified potash
• Used in: Gingerbread, sponge cake, biscuits

Historic Use in Recipes

Amelia Simmons’ American Cookery (1796) frequently used pearl ash with acidic ingredients. Below is a modern version of her gingerbread recipe.

Gingerbread with Pearl Ash

• 1 cup molasses
• 1/2 cup sour cream or buttermilk
• 1 tsp pearl ash (or baking soda)
• 1 tbsp ground ginger
• 2.5–3 cups flour

Instructions: Mix pearl ash with sour cream. Stir in molasses and ginger. Add flour gradually. Bake at 350°F for 20–25 minutes.

Other Recipes Using Potash

Beyond gingerbread, early American bakers showcased the versatility of potash in a variety of recipes where mild sweetness and dense structure were welcome. Typical dishes included molasses cakes, Johnnycakes (cornmeal flatbreads), spice biscuits, and hoecakes. These recipes often relied on potash for rise when eggs were scarce or sour milk was abundant. Amelia Simmons and other early cookbooks also mention "loaf cakes" and "crackers" leavened with potash or pearl ash, highlighting its wide range of uses.

From Hearth to Pantry: How Baking Powder Changed Everything

The introduction of baking powder in the mid-19th century marked a significant turning point in the history of baking. Potash-leavened goods tend to have a slightly soapy or alkaline note if not carefully balanced with acid. The texture was often denser, with a subtle chewiness, especially in quick breads and cakes. Baking powder, by contrast, offered a more neutral flavor and consistently resulted in a lighter crumb. It allowed bakers to move away from strong molasses and buttermilk flavors used to balance potash, resulting in the sweeter, fluffier cakes familiar today.

Regional Variations in Potash Use

The use of potash varied across the colonies. In the Northeast and Appalachian regions, where hardwood forests were abundant and molasses was a common sweetener, potash remained in use longer—especially among rural homesteads. In German- and Dutch-influenced areas like Pennsylvania, cooks developed refined versions of traditional baked goods (such as honey cakes and lebkuchen) using pearl ash. Southern cooks were more likely to switch earlier to baking soda and sour milk once commercial supply chains improved.

Comparison of Leaveners

Leavener	Source	Needs Acid?	Use	Flavor	Consistency
Potash	Wood ash	Yes	Breads	Alkaline	Unrefined
Pearl Ash	Refined potash	Yes	Cakes	Mild	Reliable
Baking Powder	Commercial blend	No	All baking	Neutral	Very consistent

Griddle Cakes Before Johnnycakes: A Historical Comparison

Medieval Flat Cakes (14th–15th c.)

Source: Le Ménagier de Paris (1393)
Typical Ingredients: Wheat flour, milk or water, egg (optional)
Cooking Method: Griddled on a flat iron, stone, or in a pan with fat

“Make a paste with white flour and warm water... roll thin and bake on the iron.”

These cakes were simple and unleavened, sometimes brushed with fat or sprinkled with sugar. Texture would be dense and chewy. A modern interpretation uses wheat flour and warm water to form a thick dough, rolled or patted thin, then cooked on a dry or greased skillet.

Early Modern Pancakes (16th c.)

Source: A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye (c. 1557)
Typical Ingredients: White flour, eggs, milk or ale/wine, spices
Cooking Method: Fried on a griddle or pan with butter/lard

“To make pancakes. Take two or three eggs, a dish of flour, and half a pint of milk. Beat them together and fry them in butter.”

These pancakes were thinner, lighter, and crispier—thanks to the addition of eggs and sometimes alcohol. A modern version might whisk 2 eggs, 1 cup flour, and ½ cup ale or milk, then fry in a buttered pan until golden.

Colonial Johnnycakes (17th–18th c.)

Source: Indigenous North American cooking, adapted by colonists
Typical Ingredients: Cornmeal, water or milk, salt, fat or molasses
Optional Leavening: Potash or pearl ash
Cooking Method: Griddled, stone-baked, or pan-fried

“Indian meal, scalded, mixed with salt, milk, or cream, and baked on a griddle or board.” — Amelia Simmons, 1796

Colonial johnnycakes often used hot water to soften cornmeal, sometimes with milk or sweeteners. When leavened with potash, they developed a slightly fluffy interior with a crisp outer crust.

Summary: Griddle Cake Evolution

Period	Dish	Grain Base	Leavening	Fat Used	Texture	Region
14th c.	Iron cakes / wafers	Wheat	None	None or lard	Dense, flat	France, England
16th c.	Pancakes	Wheat	Eggs	Butter/lard	Thin, crisp	England
17th–18th c.	Johnnycakes	Cornmeal	None or potash	Drippings or none	Crisp outside, tender inside	Colonial America

Timeline of Leavening

• Pre-1600s: Natural fermentation
• 1600s–1700s: Potash use in breads
• 1796: Pearl ash in American Cookery
• 1830s: Hartshorn for cookies
• 1850s: Commercial baking powders introduced
• 1880s+: Double-acting powders dominate

Where to Find Historical Leaveners Today

If you're interested in experimenting with historic recipes, you can still obtain several early leavening agents with care. Be sure to use only food-grade versions, and always follow recipes that include appropriate acidic ingredients when working with alkaline leaveners like potash or pearl ash.

Reputable Sources

• Pearl Ash (Food-grade Potassium Carbonate):
  - Lehman's: Carries pearl ash suitable for reenactment or heritage baking
  - Amazon: Search for “potassium carbonate, food-grade” (check vendor reviews)
• Hartshorn (Ammonium Carbonate):
  - King Arthur Baking: Sold as “Baker’s Ammonia”
  - Amazon: Look for “Baker’s Ammonia” or “Hartshorn” (food-grade only)
• Potash (Historical or DIY):
  - True culinary-grade historical potash is rare. For educational or reenactment use, you can try making it at home from hardwood ashes.
  - Permies Forum Guide: Practical advice on making your own potash safely

⚠️ Note: Commercial potash sold for fertilizer or soapmaking is not food-safe. Always verify the product is labeled for culinary use before baking.

To explore more, read From Ashes to Antlers.

More Forgotten Leaveners

Discover hartshorn and other historic techniques in our full guide.

Browse all leavening articles here.

Onion Pottage with French Bread and Cheese – Robert May’s 17th-Century Comfort Food

This rich, onion-based pottage was a hit during a lunch fundraiser at a SCA Collegium event, where it helped raise funds for Arts & Sciences in celebration of the SCA's 50th anniversary. Easy to prepare, completely meatless, and packed with deep, savory flavor, it's a classic piece of "tavern fare" that works beautifully for both period events and modern autumn or winter meals. The original recipe hails from Robert May's The Accomplisht Cook (1660), a cornerstone text of early modern English cuisine.

Original Recipe (Historical Source):

"Fry good store of slic't onions, then have a pipkin of boiling liquor over the fire, when the liquor bils put in the fryed onions, butter and all, with pepper and salt: being well stewed together, serve in on sops of French bread."

— Robert May, The Accomplisht Cook (1660)

Modern Interpretation (Serves 4):

Ingredients:

• 3 tbsp olive oil
• ½ lb onions, peeled and sliced ¼" thick
• 4 cups vegetable stock (or broth of choice)
• 1 tsp salt
• ⅛ tsp black pepper
• Toasted French bread (for serving)
• Cheese (optional for serving)

Instructions:

1. Heat olive oil in a large skillet over medium heat.
2. Add sliced onions and sauté for about 10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until soft and golden.
3. Meanwhile, bring the vegetable stock to a boil in a separate pot.
4. Add the sautéed onions, including the oil, to the boiling stock.
5. Reduce heat and simmer for 10–15 minutes.
6. Season with salt and pepper to taste.
7. To serve, place toasted slices of French bread in bowls, ladle the hot onion broth over top, and add cheese if desired.

Feast/Event Notes:

This dish was one of several warm, filling options served during our Collegium fundraiser tavern lunch. As a vegetarian-friendly option, it was ideal for feeding a crowd. Easy to prepare in advance, it holds well when kept warm in a crockpot or kettle. Paired with rustic bread and cheese, it offers satisfying, stick-to-your-ribs nourishment.

Earlier Onion-Based Variations:

This recipe from The Accomplisht Cook reflects a later stage in the evolution of onion pottages; earlier forms also appear in medieval English manuscripts. For example, Harleian MS 279 (c. 1430) includes Soupe Dorroy, a richer onion soup thickened with egg yolks, and Oyle Soppys, a simpler version that uses oil and broth over toasted bread. These earlier dishes demonstrate how cooks adapted flavor, texture, and fat sources over time and across regions.

Historical Context & SCA Use:

Robert May trained in the kitchens of English nobility during the late Tudor and early Stuart periods. Although The Accomplisht Cook was published just after the SCA's traditional 1600 cut-off, it remains an essential source for "period-adjacent" fare, especially for those exploring the evolving foodways of late-period England.

May's recipes straddle medieval and modern tastes, capturing a unique culinary crossroads. This pottage exemplifies those characteristics: hearty, rustic, and comforting, yet straightforward and adaptable for contemporary kitchens.

📜 Note for SCA Context:

Many in the SCA community recognize this dish as a reliable choice for "late period" events, especially when authenticity is a priority. It showcases the shift in English cuisine from medieval traditions to more modern techniques, making it ideal for immersive experiences, educational demos, and fundraising taverns.

Context & Menu Placement

This onion pottage was served as the opening course of our Collegium Lunch Fundraiser Tavern, a midday meal designed for easy service, rich flavor, and historical ambiance. The full menu featured a balance of meat, vegetarian options, and accessible ingredients, suited to both reenactors and newcomers.

Menu Highlights Included:

– Pork Pie with Mustard
– Cold Roast Chicken with Garlic, Sage, or Must Sauce
– Cold Lentil Salad
– Roasted Root Vegetables
– Pickles & Olives
– Fresh Fruit (Apples, Grapes, Oranges)
– French Bread & Cheese
– Water & Soda

You can view the full event menu here.

Each dish was selected to reflect late-period culinary traditions while remaining practical for modern kitchen crews and feast planners.

Labels:

17th Century | Onion Dishes | Pottage | Robert May | Tavern Fare | SCA Fundraiser | Vegetarian Friendly