Egg Leaveners: A Historical Journey from Renaissance Biscottini to Modern Baking

Mostaccioli a la Romana - Almond "Cakes" & Biscottini di zuccaro - Sugar Biscuits

Introduction: The Role of Eggs in Historical Leavening

Long before baking powder and baking soda revolutionized kitchens, cooks relied on clever, natural methods to bring lightness and lift to breads, cakes, and cookies. Among these, eggs stood out as a versatile, accessible, and surprisingly effective leavening agent—especially prized in pastries, biscuits, and delicate baked goods.

Yeast and barm starters fermented doughs, while early chemical leaveners like potash and hartshorn offered quick rising alternatives. But eggs, with their unique physical properties, provided bakers a reliable way to create tender, airy textures without fermentation or chemicals.

How Eggs Leaven: The Science Behind the Rise

• When egg whites are beaten or folded into batters, their proteins unfold and trap tiny air bubbles, creating a stable foam.
• During baking, these trapped air pockets expand with heat, causing the mixture to rise and set into a tender, airy crumb.
• This mechanical leavening doesn’t rely on fermentation or chemical reactions, allowing quicker and often more predictable results.
• Separating yolks and whites further refines control—whipped whites beaten to soft or stiff peaks can fine-tune texture and volume.

While yolks add richness and tenderness, the foaming power that lifts the batter mainly comes from the whites.

Historically, chicken eggs were common, but goose and duck eggs—larger and richer—were prized in special recipes. Coastal and rural areas might use quail or pheasant eggs, subtly affecting richness and leavening power. Variations in egg size and composition required cooks to carefully adjust techniques and ratios.

Cultural and Medicinal Significance of Eggs

Eggs weren’t just functional ingredients—they carried cultural and medical meanings. In medieval and Renaissance humoral theory, foods were classified by qualities like hot, cold, moist, and dry, believed to affect bodily balance.

Eggs were considered “warm and moist,” balancing “cold” or “dry” ingredients such as certain vegetables or grains. This philosophy shaped recipe construction and timing, elevating eggs beyond mere ingredients to symbols of health, harmony, and even seasonality.

Egg Leavening Compared to Yeast and Chemical Leaveners

Different leavening methods produced distinct textures and flavors:

• Yeast breads develop chewy crumbs and complex flavors through fermentation. They have longer shelf life but require time and precise conditions to rise.
• Egg-leavened goods like sponges, biscuits, and small cakes offer delicate crumb and richness. They rely on mechanical aeration and are best consumed fresh due to higher moisture and lack of preservative fermentation.
• Chemical leaveners such as potash and hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) emerged later, yielding quick rise and crisp texture but sometimes imparting strong flavors.

Together, these methods gave bakers a versatile toolkit, tailored for occasions from daily bread to grand banquets.

Historical Context and Development

Eggs as leaveners have roots in antiquity. Ancient Roman texts like Apicius’ De Re Coquinaria (4th–5th century CE) include recipes enriched with eggs, implying leavening roles (Dalby, 2003). By medieval times, cookery manuscripts showed increasing sophistication, recognizing eggs’ ability to trap air and lighten crumb (Toussaint-Samat, 1992).

The Italian Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) was pivotal. Bartolomeo Scappi’s Opera dell’Arte del Cucinare (1570) details egg-leavened tortelletti, sponges, and biscotti. This knowledge spread across Europe, influencing French and English baking (Albala, 2011). English texts like Forme of Cury reflect local adaptations.

Eggs’ “warm and moist” classification under humoral theory guided recipe design and usage by season and constitution (Fissell, 2010). Socioeconomic factors also influenced egg use; while chickens were common, eggs were seasonal and sometimes scarce, reserved for special occasions or wealthier households (Lea & Ward, 2003).

Pre-1600 Examples of Egg-Leavened Baked Goods

Fifteenth-century manuscripts document egg-leavened baked goods predating chemical leaveners. Italian biscottini—crisp cookies folding whipped egg whites into sweetened dough—are well attested (Scappi, 1570). English texts like Forme of Cury (ca. 1390) describe egg-based cakes and biscuits aerated by beating (Leahy, 1999).

Typical ingredients included wheat flour, honey or sugar, eggs (whole or separated), and spices like almonds, citrus peel, and cinnamon (Toussaint-Samat, 1992). Egg whites were hand-beaten to a stable foam, then folded carefully to preserve air bubbles, producing tender crumb (Smith, 2013).

Success depended on whipping and folding skill. Recipes emphasized “enough” eggs and beating “well,” reflecting practical rather than precise measures (Albala, 2007). These treats, labor-intensive and seasonal, were reserved for feasts, showcasing culinary artistry.

Post-1600 Innovations and Refinements

The 17th century brought refined egg-leavened baking with dedicated sponges and pastries relying on egg foam science. Cookbooks like La Varenne’s Le Cuisinier François (1651) and Woolley’s The Queen-like Closet (1672) describe precise beating and folding techniques for tender crumb (La Varenne, 1651; Woolley, 1672).

Egg whites were whipped to varying stiffness and folded gently—foundational for sponges and foams still popular today. Though chemical leaveners like hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) appeared, egg foam remained preferred for subtle flavor and texture (Albala, 2011).

Regional variation thrived: French genoise sponges favored gentle folding with minimal chemical leaveners (Montagné, 1938), while English Victoria sponge layered jam and cream, highlighting egg-leavened richness (Toussaint-Samat, 1992). Italy preserved airy biscottini and pan di Spagna, blending Renaissance techniques with local tastes.

“To whip eggs to the proper consistency requires both patience and finesse. Early bakers used careful hand motions to achieve soft, medium, or stiff peaks, each suited to different textures.”
— Adapted from Le Cuisinier François (1651)

Hartshorn — The Predecessor to Baking Powder

Before modern baking powder, hartshorn (ammonium bicarbonate) was a common chemical leavener in Europe. Derived from powdered deer antlers, it created crisp, light biscuits but sometimes imparted a distinct ammonia aroma, making egg foam the preferred leavening for delicate cakes and pastries (Albala, 2011).

While effective, hartshorn’s scent was off-putting to some, leading to the development of modern baking powders in the 19th century.

Featured Recipe: Italian Renaissance Biscottini

Ingredients

• 3 large egg whites
• 150g (3/4 cup) granulated sugar
• 150g (1 1/2 cups) finely ground almonds (almond flour)
• 1 teaspoon lemon zest (optional)
• 1/2 teaspoon ground cinnamon (optional)
• Pinch of salt

Preparation

1. Preheat oven to 325°F (160°C). Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.
2. Whip egg whites with salt to soft peaks. Gradually add sugar while whipping to stiff, glossy peaks.
3. Gently fold in almonds, lemon zest, and cinnamon, preserving airiness.
4. Pipe or spoon dollops onto baking sheet, spacing about 2 inches apart.
5. Bake for 20–25 minutes until dry to the touch and lightly golden.
6. Cool completely on a wire rack before serving.

Tips:

• Avoid overbeating the egg whites to maintain tenderness.
• Baking at a moderate temperature dries cookies evenly without excess browning.
• Experiment with savory variations like minced prosciutto or spices like anise seeds.

Egg Leaveners in the Broader Context of Historical Baking

Egg leavening coexisted with yeast fermentation, chemical agents like potash and hartshorn, and mechanical methods such as creaming butter and sugar.

• Yeast made staple chewy breads with long shelf life.
• Chemical leaveners enabled quick, crisp biscuits but sometimes had strong flavors.
• Egg leavening was ideal for delicate pastries and cakes, prized for lightness without fermentation or chemicals.

Egg-leavened goods were luxurious and reserved for special occasions, contrasting with everyday breads. Due to higher moisture and fat, they were more perishable and best enjoyed fresh.

Modern classics like genoise, pan di Spagna, and ladyfingers descend from these methods, underscoring their timeless appeal.

Timeless Traditions: The Enduring Legacy of Egg Leavening

What’s truly striking is how little the fundamental technique of egg leavening has changed over the centuries. The modern almond biscuit recipe above isn’t far removed from the Renaissance biscottini crafted in 17th-century kitchens.

The same simple yet precise steps—whipping egg whites to glossy foam, folding in dry ingredients gently, and baking at a careful temperature—have carried through generations.

This continuity is a testament to the elegance and effectiveness of these age-old methods. Rather than being “primitive,” historical recipes display remarkable sophistication and intuitive understanding of food science long before modern chemistry.

By baking with these techniques today, you’re connecting directly with a rich culinary heritage. Each whisk and fold echoes the skilled hands of bakers past, bridging time and culture through shared craftsmanship.

Try It Yourself

Whether you’re a history buff or a curious baker, these egg-leavened recipes invite you to whisk your way through centuries of culinary tradition. Try your hand at Renaissance biscottini and taste the legacy of a time-honored technique.

For more on historical leaveners, explore our Forgotten Leaveners series covering potash, yeast, and chemical methods.

Support our work on Ko-fi for exclusive recipes and guides, helping keep history alive on your table.

Suggested Internal Links

• Forgotten Leaveners Series: Potash and Pearl Ash
• Yeast and Barm Starters in Historical Baking (TBD)
• Chemical Leaveners: Hartshorn and Ammonium Bicarbonate

References

• Albala, K. (2011). Food in Early Modern Europe. Greenwood Press.
• Albala, K. (2007). Food in Early Modern Europe. Greenwood Press.
• Dalby, A. (2003). Food in the Ancient World from A to Z. Routledge.
• Fissell, M. (2010). Natural Science and the Making of the Middle Ages. University of Chicago Press.
• La Varenne, F. P. (1651). Le Cuisinier François.
• Lea, D., & Ward, J. (2003). The English Cookery Book: Historical Perspective. British Library.
• Leahy, E. (1999). The Forme of Cury: A Roll of Ancient English Cookery. Early English Text Society.
• Montagné, P. (1938). Larousse Gastronomique.
• Scappi, B. (1570). Opera dell’Arte del Cucinare. Venice.
• Smith, A. F. (2013). The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink. Oxford University Press.
• Toussaint-Samat, M. (1992). A History of Food. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Woolley, H. (1672). The Queen-like Closet.

Kitchen Adventures – Nucato from Anonimo Toscano (Comfits and Candies: & Del mele bullito co le noci, detto nucato)

Nucato Recipe: A 14th-Century Italian Honey & Nut Confection

The Anonimo Toscano, also known as the Libro della cucina del secolo XIV, is a significant 14th-century manuscript that provides a remarkable window into the culinary traditions of medieval Tuscany. This collection of 184 recipes showcases the ingenuity and artistry of Italian cuisine during this period. Among these, Nucato stands out as a particularly noteworthy confection, crafted from honey and nuts and recorded under the title Del mele bullito co le noci, detto nucato. This delicacy, made by boiling honey with nuts and aromatic spices, has long been associated with festive gatherings and celebrations.

Honey: A Culinary Staple in Medieval Italy

In medieval Italy, honey was more than just a sweetener—it was a prized ingredient valued for both its rich flavor and medicinal properties. Before sugar became widely available, honey played a crucial role in both sweet and savory dishes. Monastic communities were instrumental in beekeeping, producing honey that would be used in everything from pastries to meat glazes. Trade cities like Venice and Florence further expanded access to honey, allowing it to become a staple in households across different social classes.

Nucato exemplifies how honey was combined with warm spices such as cinnamon, ginger, and cloves to create a complex, satisfying confection. The natural sweetness of honey enhances the depth of roasted nuts, while the spices introduce layers of flavor that balance the dish beautifully.

Recreating Nucato: A Taste of the Past

For those interested in bringing a piece of medieval Italy into their kitchen, here is a detailed recipe to follow:

Ingredients:

• 5 cups high-quality honey
• 4 cups chopped nuts (hazelnuts, almonds, and walnuts)
• Zest and juice of 1 lemon
• 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
• 1 teaspoon ground ginger
• 1/3 teaspoon ground cloves
• 1 pinch ground black pepper

Instructions:

1. In a heavy-bottomed pot, gently simmer the honey over low heat, skimming off any impurities that rise to the surface. This ensures a smooth and pure base.
2. Stir in the chopped nuts, making sure they are evenly coated with honey.
3. Add half of the cinnamon, ginger, cloves, and black pepper, allowing the spices to infuse into the mixture.
4. Cook over low heat for about 30 minutes, stirring continuously to prevent burning. The mixture should thicken and develop a glossy sheen.
5. Once ready, spread the mixture evenly onto a lightly greased surface. Sprinkle the remaining spices over the top and gently dab the surface with lemon juice to enhance the flavor.
6. Allow the Nucato to cool completely before cutting it into bite-sized pieces.

Savoring a Medieval Delight

The final result is a rich, chewy confection with a nutty crunch and warm spice undertones, perfect for pairing with spiced wine or a strong espresso. Beyond its delightful taste, Nucato serves as a connection to Italy’s culinary heritage, offering a tangible way to experience the flavors of the past.

🦚 Curious about the full feast?
Explore the complete menu from the Flaming Gryphon 12th Night Feast 2024 to see all the dishes and historical inspirations behind this event.

Exploring recipes like Nucato not only enriches our understanding of medieval cuisine but also allows us to appreciate the timeless appeal of simple, high-quality ingredients. Whether you're a history enthusiast or simply looking for a unique homemade treat, this traditional Italian confection brings a touch of the past into the present—one delicious bite at a time.

I got help from Grammarly to create this blog post. 

Italian (Medieval) – Finnocchio dolce verde- Sweet Green Fennel (Candied Fennel Stalks) (Comfits and Candies)

 

Plates of Candies and Comfits waiting to be served 

Domenico Romoli's "La Singolare Dottrina," published in 1560, is a comprehensive guide for cooks and maîtres d'hôtel, offering insights into the selection, preparation, and service of various foods and wines. In its fourth book, Romoli presents detailed menus for each month, including the "Banquet of January." This banquet showcases a variety of dishes suitable for the winter season, reflecting the culinary traditions of 16th-century Italy.

Sweet Green Fennel from Domenico Romoli's Banquet of January

Domenico Romoli's La Singolare Dottrina (1560) offers a fascinating glimpse into Renaissance cuisine for those who love diving into historical recipes. This culinary guide, written by Romoli—nicknamed Panunto—details elaborate feasts for every month of the year. Among the dishes featured in the Banquet of the Month of January is Finnocchio Dolce Verde, or Sweet Green Fennel, a unique Renaissance treat that transforms humble fennel stalks into candied delights.

A Taste of 16th-Century Italy

Fennel was a staple in Italian Renaissance kitchens, prized for its digestive properties and aromatic qualities. This particular preparation, which candies the fennel stalks in sugar syrup, reflects the era's fascination with preserving flavors and enhancing natural sweetness. The result is a delicately flavored confection, perfect for pairing with cheeses and wine or simply enjoying as a sweet snack.

The Recipe: Sweet Green Fennel (Candied Fennel Stalks)

Yield: About 3/4 cup candied fennel and 1 cup syrup

Ingredients:

• 1 cup sugar
• 1 cup water
• 5 to 6 ounces of fennel stalks, cut on the diagonal into thin sticks (about 1 1/2 cups)

Instructions:

1. Preheat the oven to 250°F. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper or a silicone liner.
2. Prepare the syrup: In a small saucepan over medium-high heat, combine the sugar and water. Stir until the sugar dissolves.
3. Candy the fennel: Add the sliced fennel stalks to the syrup and reduce heat to medium. Cook until the fennel stalks become translucent.
4. Strain and bake: Strain the fennel stalks, reserving the syrup for future use (it's great for cocktails or drizzling over desserts). Spread the syrup-coated fennel slices in a single layer on the prepared baking sheet.
5. Dry the fennel: Bake for about 30 minutes, then separate any sticking slices. Continue baking for 30 minutes or until the fennel is dry yet slightly sticky.
6. Cool and serve: Allow the fennel to cool completely before serving or storing.
7. 
   

Bringing History to Your Table

The candied fennel from Romoli's Banquet of January offers a glimpse into the refined tastes of Renaissance Italy. Its delicate sweetness and herbal notes make it a versatile addition to modern dishes—try it as a garnish for cheese boards, an elegant topping for desserts, or even infused into a winter tea.

By recreating historical recipes like this one, we can appreciate how Renaissance chefs balanced sweetness, texture, and aromatic flavors. Next time you're in the kitchen, why not step back and savor the flavors of a 16th-century banquet?

🦚 Curious about the full feast?
Explore the complete menu from the Flaming Gryphon 12th Night Feast 2024 to see all the dishes and historical inspirations behind this event.

Gilding (Medieval Basics)

 Koekerye (1570)

33 Gilding Make a little honey water, brush the almonds with it, then put the gold or silver on them, and push it down with cottonwool where it does not lie straight. You can also gild gingerbread and other things this way. Prepare a broad stick to lift up the gold with. Do not touch it with the bare hand or it will spoil. Printed in Luebeck by Johan Balhorn, 1570

This is not a recipe. It is a how to gild items that you may wish to present with edible gold. This is something I learned how to do through trial and error. It was an expensive lesson and I hope to spare someone else the expense based on my experiences.

What is edible gold leaf?

Gold leaf is actual gold that is a high enough quality that it can be safely consumed. Make sure that when you are purchasing gold leaf that it is marked as "edible", otherwise, you are risking the consumption of things that can make you ill. Gold leaf will not enter your digestive system, but will pass through your body without being absorbed. It is tasteless, and for the most part, it goes unnoticed while eating.

Is gold leaf expensive?

Edible gold leaf is expensive. Edible gold leaf is made from 24 karat.

What is the best use for gold leaf?

The best usage for gold leaf is as an accent to your presentation, rather than using it to completely cover an item. Regardless of how you use it, the use of it will lend a very luxurious look to your presentations.

What does it look like?

Gold leaf can be purchased as either loose leaf sheets, or transfer sheets. It is usually found in small booklets that are approximately 2" x 4". My preference are loose leaf sheets.

What tools will I need?

• Gloves - to prevent the gold leaf from sticking to the oils on your skin and messing up your work

• At least two very fine bristled brushes- one to transfer the gold from the sheet to your presentation and one to dampen the surface of your presentation so the gold has something to stick to (I use a paintbrush)

• An area that is free of drafts - the sheets that you purchase are extremely thin and very sensitive to airflow.

How do you apply gold leaf?

For loose gold leaf:

To use gold leaf, the surface that you will be attaching it to must be moist. You can moisten the area with a brush that has been dipped in water and then pressed onto a bit of paper towel to remove excess moisture before painting the surface of the object you will be gilding. You can also use egg whites, or a solution of gum Arabic.

Carefully fold back the paper of the booklet before lifting the leaf from between the paper with a clean, dry, brush and then move it onto the area you want to apply it. The gold will want to adhere to *everything* so you will need to be very careful when handling it that you use only a small amount at a time.

The sheets of gold are ultra thin and will fold over on themselves as soon as they are lifted from the paper.

I prefer a more rustic look when gilding. The Spanish Wedges pictured above are an example of that. The gold leaf does not adhere to the entire surface of the item.

For transfer gold leaf:

Using transfer gold leaf is not always advisable. If your project is smaller, loose leaf gold leaf is the better option. For large areas (such as an entire cake), transfer may be best.

As above, the area that will be covered should be moist. Unlike above, you will want to lift the transfer sheet and place it face down on the surface. You will want to smooth the leaf down using very light pressure to ensure that the sheet is stuck to the surface. A large make up brush would be best.

Once you have gone over the whole of the backing sheet, gently pull the backing away from the object starting from one corner. It is not unusual to find that small pieces of gold leaf may remain attached to the backing sheet. Repeat the above steps to adhere it to the object you are gilding.

Note: Gold Leaf will never have a 100% smooth finish and that is it's beauty, it will always be imperfectly perfect, so don't stress if it you see imperfections--whatever you have gilded will be absolutely stunning!

Source

Culina-Vetus.De, 2022, https://www.culina-vetus.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Koekerye-1570.pdf. Accessed 21 Sept 2022.

Kitchen Adventures – 17th Century Dessert (Spanish Wedges)

Spanish Candy Wedges from A Book of Fruits and Flowers, 1653

Originally published:  Jul 2, 2022

https://giveitforth.wixsite.com/giveitforth/post/medieval-desserts-spanish-wedges

To Preserve all kinde of Flowers in the Spanish Candy in Wedges.

Take Violets, Cowslips, or any other kinde of Flowers, pick them, and temper them with the pap of two roasted Apples, and a drop or two of Verjuice, and a graine of Muske, then take halfe a pound of fine hard Sugar, boyle it to the height of Manus Christi, then mix them together, and pour it on a wet Pye plate, then cut it it in Wedges before it be through cold, gild it, and so you may box it, and keep it all the year. It is a fine sort of Banquetting stuffe, and newly used, your Manus Christi must boyle a good while and be kept with good stirring.

Download Recipe Here

Ingredients

2 apples (I used granny smith)
1-2 drops white wine vinegar (to replace verjuice)
1 grain of musk *opt.
1 cup sugar
2/3 cup water
Pinch of dried edible flowers

Directions

1. Peel and core your apples, cut into wedges, and roast in a 400-degree oven for approximately 20 minutes, or until apples have started to brown.

2. While apples are roasting bring your sugar and water and boil it until it reaches 245 degrees.

3. Add sugar syrup, roasted apples, white wine vinegar, or verjuice to a blender and blend until smooth. Opt. Add a drop or two of food-grade musk flavoring at this point.

4. Prepare a mold by spraying it with a little bit of oil and lining it with parchment paper.

5. Sprinkle flowers on the bottom of the tin, add the apple mixture. Be sure to sprinkle more flowers on top.

6. Allow drying until no longer sticky to the touch, cut as desired.When completely dry this candy has the texture of maple sugar candy, otherwise, it is very similar to fruit leather. Store in air tight container

NOTES:

There are two different ways this recipe can be read. The first is the method that I used where the pureed apple is added to the boiled sugar syrup and allowed to dry. The second is that the pureed apple is added to the sugar and water and that mixture is then brought to a boil before being poured into your mold.

It took several days for this beauty to dry completely. When it had dried became a crystalized sugar candy. I did allow it to dry overnight in the oven before removing it from the mold. I veered from the recipe by using a 6" tart pan instead of an 8" pie pan, and I believe this made the candy thicker than originally intended.

I also believe that this very thick candy should have been allowed to dry two or three days before I removed it from the mold and cut it into wedges. The thing that I would do differently in the future would be to make a thinner candy by using a larger plate.

I believe this is a very luxurious treat, that would enhance any dessert course at an event. The taste is a very sweet apple, with just a touch of floral note at the end of the bite. I cut this 6" tart-shaped treat into 12 wedges and I would not want to make it any bigger. At this size, it creates a two to three-bite candy.

TOA Documentation

Source

"The Project Gutenberg Ebook Of A Book Of Fruits And Flowers". Gutenberg.Org, 2022, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13265/13265-h/13265-h.htm?fbclid=IwAR1UD2bx6I7bO97kplgubSC10fQE05PsXq0GMT8gFpH9C-xvmtRwouCh_x8.

Kitchen Adventures – Of assorted sugar comfits

 Originally published on Patreon Oct 5, 2022

Thomas Dawson lists comfets (comfits) as one of the "necessaries appertaining to a banquet". Comfits were often served at the end of the feast to freshen the breath, act as a digestive, as decoration, and sometimes used in the treatment of specific illnesses.

Aromatic seeds such as anise, fennel, or caraway were coated with sugar and colored using beet, spinach, or saffron. They can also be made using almonds or ginger. Comfits can still be purchased today, for example, Jordan almonds or pastilles. They are a bit time-consuming to make but oh so much tastier than the ones you purchase!

The easier comfits to make are the ones with seeds such as caraway, fennel, or anise. Making cinnamon comfits is a bit of a process. To start I will walk you through the process of candying seeds such as anise, caraway, coriander, fennel, or other seeds or nuts.

Many of the cookbooks that were published in the 1700s and after suggest coating the seeds with a solution of gum arabic. To create your solution use 1 tsp. of gum arabic, to 3 tsp. rosewater. I let mine sit overnight and it becomes a thick, honey-colored gel. If you are going to use gum arabic to coat your seeds, the first few coats (charges) will need to use this solution. Then you can move on to your sugar.

For more information on making these historic treats, please visit Historic Comfits Using Modern Equipment by Dame Alys Katharine (Elise Fleming).

Original Recipe

CLXXIX

Von allerley Zucker Confect

Ausz der Apotecken.

Of assorted sugar comfits

(as) from the apothecary

I. Almonds coated.

2. Anise coated.

3. Cinnamon-bark coated.

4. Cloves coated.

5. Coriander coated.

6. Caraway coated.

7. Fennel coated.

8. Pinion nut coated

9. Walnuts coated

10. Hazelnut (Filbert) kernels coated.

11. Peach kernel coated (I assume only the soft kernel inside the pit)

12. Citron peel coated.

13. Apricot kernel coated.

14. Assorted plum kernel(s) coated.

15. Assorted cherry kernels coated (is there a soft center to a cherry pit?)

16. Chestnuts coated.

17. (Sauer) Orange peel coated.

18. Lime peel coated (there is debate if Limonien were limes or lemons)

19. Eichorium (unsure what this is... perhaps oak???) root coated.

20. Pimpernell (Pimpinella saxifraga L) root coated. (greater Burnett???)

21. Glockenwurtz or Helmenkraut (Inula helenium L) root coated. (Elecampane is an expectorant, root also dyes blue)

22. Sugar root coated (sugar beet root)

23. Violet (or pansy) (Viola odorata L, Viola tricolor L) root coated.

24. Ginger coated.

25. Of assorted roots/ that have a well tasting scent/smell.

If you wish such comfits to coat with sugar/ so take a clean copper vessel/ that has two handholds/ hang it in the height on a rope at both handholds/ set a glow kettle with glowing coals thereunder/ put the comfits into the vessel/ and make it fine warm/ pour nice clarified (clean) sugar thereto/ and stir it often therewith/ till the confits the sugar takes to it/ so it becomes nice white and dry. Also coats one assorted grains (do they really mean wheat, rye, etc? or are they talking about kernels as in individual anise seeds?) with sugar/ and assorted spices/ so it becomes good and also welltasting.

Original Recipe How to cover all kinds of Seeds, or little pieces of Spices, or Orange or Limon Pill, with Sugar for Comfits. First of all you must have a deep bottomed Basin of Brass or Latin, with two ears of Iron to hang it with two Cords over some hot Coals. You must also have a broad Pan to put Ashes in, and hot Coals upon them. You must have a Brass Ladle to let run the Sugar upon the Seeds. You must have a Slice of Brass to scrape away the Sugar from the sides of the hanging Basin if need be. Having all these things in readiness, do as followeth; Take fine white Sugar beaten, and let your Seeds and Spice be dry, then dry them again in your hanging Basin: Take to every two pounds of Sugar one quarter of a pound of Spices or Seeds, or such like.  If it be Aniseeds, two pounds of Sugar to half a pound of Aniseeds, will be enough. Melt your Sugar in this manner, put in three Pounds of Sugar into the Basin, and one Pint of Water, stir it well till it be wet, then melt it very well and boil it very softly until it will stream from the Ladle like Turpentine, and not drop, then let it seeth no more, but keep it upon warm Embers, that it may run from the Ladle upon the seeds.  Move the Seeds in the hanging Basin so fast as you can or may, and with one hand, cast on half a Ladle full at a time of the hot Sugar, and rub the Seeds with your other hand a pretty while, for that will make them take the Sugar the better, and dry them well after every Coat. Do thus at every Coat, not only in moving the Basin, but also with stirring of the Comfits with the one hand, and drying the same: in every hour you may make three pounds of Comfits; as the Comfits do increase in bigness, so you may take more Sugar in your Ladle to cast on: But for plain Comfits, let your Sugar be of a light decoction last, and of a high decoction first, and not too hot.  For crisp and ragged Comfits make your decoction so high, as that it may run from the Ladle, and let it fall a foot high or more from the Ladle, and the hotter you cast on your sugar, the more ragged will your Comfits be; also the Comfits will not take so much of the sugar, as upon a light decoction, and they will keep their raggedness long; this high decoction must serve for eight or ten Coats, and put on at every time but one Ladle full. A quarter of a pound of Coriander seeds, and three pounds of sugar, will serve for very great Comfits. See that you keep your Sugar in the Basin always in good temper, that it burn not in Lumps, and if at any time it be too high boiled, put in a spoonful or two of water, and keep it warily with your Ladle, and let your fire be always very clear, when your Comfits be made, set them in Dishes upon Paper in the Sun or before the Fire, or in the Oven after Bread is drawn, for the space of one hour or two, and that will make them look very white. 

 Comfits 

1 tbsp. seed of choice (anise, fennel, caraway, etc.) 

1 cup sugar 

1/3 cup water

Instructions 1. If you choose to coat your seeds with gum arabic you will need to do that in the first few charges of syrup. The ratio that most of the later confectionary books used was 6:1 - 6 parts sugar syrup to 1 part gum arabic solution. It has an odd smell when you "cook" it, but that does not affect the taste  2. Heat the sugar and the water until it reaches 170 degrees for a smooth coat, or  225 degrees for a jagged coat.  3. While the sugar syrup is heating, you will want to heat your seeds or nuts in a large flat pan such as a wok or frying pan in order to release its essential oils.  If you cannot use your fingers to stir the seeds as they heat it is too hot.   4. Once the syrup has reached the temperature you want, take a teaspoon of it and pour it over the seeds in the pan. I shake the pan until the syrup has cooled enough I can smooth the seeds around with my fingers. However, you can use the back of a wooden spoon, and stir the seeds until the sugar dries.

• If the seeds stick together, you have used too much syrup.
• If the sugar forms pellets in the bottom of the pan then you have used too much syrup.
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NOTE: In the first few charges (coats) of the syrup the seed will look grayish, and then they will gradually begin to turn white.   5. After about 12 charges, you are done for the day. I prefer my comfits smaller, so I usually do not do this process a second day. However, you can, if you wish, make another solution of syrup and coat your seeds again after they have had time to dry out overnight. The larger the comfits get, the more you will need to divide your batch. You need to be able to work with the pan.

NOTE: Beet juice, spinach juice, and saffron can be used to color your comfits in the last several charges of syrup, or, you can add a few drops of food coloring if you wish.  

To Make Cinnamon Comfits

 Cinnamon comfits require an extra step. First,  you need to make sure that you are using "true" cinnamon, that is Ceylon Cinnamon, which is soft, crumbly, and brittle. When you look at it, it is "compact" and consists of many layers. Cassia cinnamon is what you normally find in the store, and it is thick, and darker in color than Ceylon cinnamon which is a light rusty brown in color. Once you have obtained Ceylon cinnamon you will need to soak it overnight in water. This is so that you can shave it down into the needle-like strips that are needed to make the comfit. Then you will need to let your cinnamon dry thoroughly.  Once the cinnamon has dried completely, proceed as above, being careful to coat the cinnamon with the gum arabic/syrup solution in the first three charges (coats). You will need to stop coating your comfits after about eight charges of syrup and let them dry overnight. Then you can make another solution of syrup and continue the next day.  Enjoy! 

 Update: Regarding cinnamon comfits,  I have been able to make these successfully without soaking ahead of time. 

 Sources

"Deutsches Textarchiv – Rumpolt, Marx: Ein New Kochbuch. Frankfurt (Main), 1581.". Deutschestextarchiv.De, 2022, https://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/view/rumpolt_kochbuch_1581/?p=418&hl=Rote. Accessed 4 Oct 2022.

Palmer, Sharon. "Ein New Kochbuch". Academia.Edu, 2022, https://www.academia.edu/6272538/Ein_New_Kochbuch. Accessed 4 Oct 2022.