Insalata di Cicoria Bianca – Renaissance Chicory Salad with Raisins & Shallots

Insalata di Cicorea Bianca, Scalognetti Freschi – White chicory salad with fresh shallots and raisins
— From the 16th‑c. Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook

Insalata di Cicoria Bianca – chicory salad served at Baronial 12th Night Feast

This vibrant bitter-sweet salad was served during the Secundo Servito – Antipasti di cucina course of the Baronial 12th Night 2024 Feast. Inspired by a 16th-century Hungarian court manuscript known as the Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook, it reflects a moment when Italian culinary sophistication influenced kitchens far beyond the Alps. The recipe calls out the Italians by name — praising their simplicity while offering a Hungarian twist.

This recipe comes from the Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook (mid-16th c.), preserved in Hungarian sources and available via MedievalCookery.com. It reflects Hungary’s cosmopolitan court culture under rulers like Gabriel Bethlen, where Italian culinary practices were deeply admired and adapted  

Historical Background: A Transylvanian Culinary Lens

The Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook was compiled in a culturally rich period when Transylvania — then a principality of the Kingdom of Hungary — absorbed diverse culinary influences from Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and the German-speaking world. Courts under princes like Gabriel Bethlen and György Rákóczi I cultivated both humanist learning and refined dining. Italian food was especially admired, and references in the manuscript highlight its prestige.

🌍 Cross-Cultural Influences in the Transylvanian Court Kitchen

The Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook reflects a sophisticated fusion of culinary traditions. While Italian cuisine is explicitly referenced, the manuscript shows clear signs of diverse influence:

• Ottoman Cuisine: Spiced meats, rice, pickled fruits, and sweet-sour pairings suggest Turkish and Persian inspiration.
• Germanic Traditions: Dumplings, pork fat, and bread-based dishes echo Saxon and Bohemian styles from Habsburg lands.
• Slavic Elements: Fermented dairy, allium-rich dressings, and foraged greens reflect broader East-Central European customs.
• Possible Armenian or Jewish Touches: Sweet-savory sauces with dried fruit and nuts hint at urban Levantine or Sephardic culinary habits.

This layered culinary identity was typical of 16th-century Transylvania, a crossroads of empires and trade. Recipes like this salad — which pairs Italian simplicity with Hungarian technique — exemplify that blending.

“The Italians do it like so: they slice [the chicory] into a pot or a plate, add salt and black pepper, then eat it. We Hungarian chef masters soak this, too.” — Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook

Renaissance Salad Styles

🌿 Renaissance Salad Styles

In Renaissance cookery, the concept of a salad went far beyond leafy greens. Derived from the Latin salata (meaning “salted things”), salads included raw or blanched vegetables, fresh herbs, cooked greens, and even warm dishes — all united by the presence of oil, vinegar, or brine.

Salads during this period often reflected Galenic medical theory, which emphasized balancing the four humors through food. Certain greens were considered cooling and moist, while others were hot and dry — and preparation methods were used to correct imbalances.

• Simple Salads – Raw herbs or greens, lightly salted or drizzled with oil
• Soaked Salads – Bitter greens or roots soaked to soften their bite or draw out excess moisture
• Composed Salads – Layered or marinated salads with ingredients like dried fruit, onions, and vinegar
• Herbed Salads – Complex mixtures of aromatic herbs, flowers, and sometimes spices
• Cooked Salads – Blanched or sautéed greens such as lettuce or spinach, often served warm and dressed, considered more digestible per Galenic principles

This dish blends the soaked and composed styles, pairing the bitter, cooling properties of chicory with the warming sweetness of raisins and the sharpness of shallot, all softened in a steeped vinaigrette. The balance of humors and textures makes it both medically appropriate and gastronomically appealing for a Renaissance table.

Italian vs. Hungarian Approaches

The manuscript’s author explicitly compares methods: Italians salted and dressed their chicory simply, while Hungarian chefs preferred to soak it. This extra step likely softened its bitterness and made it more palatable for guests unused to raw greens. The use of shallots and raisins adds both flavor complexity and textural contrast, demonstrating the court’s elevated approach to even humble ingredients.

The Role of Salads in Feast Structure

In formal Renaissance banquets, salads were often part of the Credenza (pantry-style) or Antipasti di Cucina (kitchen-prepared) courses. Their placement early in the meal aligned with medical advice — balancing digestion and setting the stage for heavier fare. This salad, with its bitter greens, aromatic vegetables, and tangy dressing, served as a perfect counterpoint to bot of the crostata's and pickled grapes also offered in this service.

Salads for Peasants, Merchants, and Princes

Not all Renaissance salads were created equal. Across early modern Hungary, salad preparation and presentation reflected both social class and medical belief:

• Noble Courts: Chicory, fennel, and imported greens were paired with raisins, citrus, or aromatic vinegars. These salads were layered, often steeped, and served early in formal meals to stimulate digestion.
• Merchant Households: Seasonal greens like cabbage or wild sorrel were tossed with onions, vinegar, and local oils. They mirrored court recipes in form but not luxury.
• Peasant Tables: Raw herbs and greens — if eaten — were foraged or grown and often dressed only with salt or a splash of vinegar.  In some European regions, fermented dairy or whey may have been used as a simple dressing. In Hungarian folk cooking, foraged greens like sorrel, nettles or dandelions were mixed with sourmilk or tejföl (fermented cream). Although these practices are not codified in noble cookbooks, they are part of practical traditions that have been handed down via oral tradition.

Over time, noble recipes filtered downward, simplified by necessity but retained in memory. This salad's bittersweet profile — once elite — became a rustic staple in many regional cuisines.

Modern Interpretation – Serves 8

• 1 large radicchio or white chicory, thinly sliced
• 1 cup shredded red or white cabbage
• 1 fennel bulb, thinly sliced
• ½ shallot, thinly sliced
• ½ cup red raisins (or halved red grapes)

Dressing

• ½ cup raisins
• ½ shallot, minced
• 2 tbsp vinegar (balsamic or red wine)
• ¼ cup extra‑virgin olive oil
• Salt & pepper, to taste

1. Toss salad ingredients in a large bowl.
2. In a separate bowl, combine raisins, shallot, vinegar, salt and pepper. Whisk in olive oil and let steep.
3. Just before serving, drizzle dressing over the salad and serve immediately.

Humoral Properties of Chicory

Chicory (Cichorium intybus) was widely praised in Renaissance herbals and medical texts for its cooling and drying qualities. According to Galenic theory, it helped balance excess choler and bile, soothed the liver, and stimulated digestion. Bitter foods like chicory were often served at the beginning of a meal to “open the appetite.” When paired with vinegar, oil, and sweet elements like raisins, it formed a well-balanced and elegant dish.

Renaissance Salad Comparison by Region

Region	Salad Base	Dressings	Cultural Notes	Extant Recipes
Italian States	Chicory, endive, lettuce, fennel	Olive oil, vinegar, salt, herbs	Served early in meals for digestion; emphasized freshness and refinement	Lettuce - a cooked lettuce salad served with green sauce
Hungary (Nobility)	Chicory, fennel, radicchio, cabbage	Olive oil, vinegar, raisins, shallots	Adapted Italian forms; emphasized balance of bitter/sweet and humoral properties	White Chicory Salad (Modern Redaction)
England	Lettuce, spinach, herbs, flowers	Vinegar, oil, sugar, citrus juice	Often layered with nuts, dried fruit, and sweet-sour dressings; herbal and floral salads appeared in elite dining	Pepys To Make Buttered Wortes – Pepys 18
Germanic Lands	Cabbage, cress, herbs	Vinegar, lard, egg yolk	Hearty, rustic, influenced by monastic and beer culture	Salat – Aromatic Medieval Herb Salad
Ottoman Territories	Herbs, purslane, onions	Lemon juice, yogurt, oil, sumac	Rich sweet-sour profiles; integrated medicinal herbs	Purslane Salad – Medieval Recipes

🥕 Dietary Notes

• Vegetarian: ✔️
• Vegan: ✔️
• Gluten‑Free: ✔️
• Galenic balanced: Bitter greens offset by sweet fruit and sharp aromatics

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Historical References

• Prince of Transylvania’s Court Cookbook (mid‑16th c.): includes “Chicory salad… The Italians do it like so…” and a list of 1603 feast menus 
• Chicory in Galenic medicine: see John Gerard’s Herbal (1597), and Mattioli’s Commentarii (1544)
• Banquet structure and salad use in Renaissance Europe: Platina, Scappi, and Romoli

Crostata di funghi per un giorno in prestito - To prepare a crostata of mushrooms

Preparare una crostata di funghi per un giorno in prestito – To prepare a crostata of mushrooms for a day in Lent
— Domenico Romoli, La Singolare Dottrina, c. 1560

Translation Note: The phrase “in prestito” literally means “on loan” or “borrowed.” In Renaissance Italian culinary texts, it often referred to fast days — especially during Lent — when meat was forbidden and meals were offered in spiritual observance. A “giorno in prestito” was thus a day “loaned to God,” requiring dietary restraint but still calling for skilled, satisfying cookery.

Note: Scappi’s crostata method (likely recipes 221–222) typically included soft cheese and eggs. Though recipe 223 is titled “for a fast day,” it references that base without explicitly removing dairy, leading some modern interpretations (like this one) to keep the cheese. Historically, a true Lenten version would omit cheese and use dairy-free alternatives such as almond-based fillings.

In the heart of an Italian Renaissance kitchen, a crostata wasn’t just a pastry — it was a vehicle for showcasing the season’s best ingredients, shaped by time, place, and religious calendar. This particular recipe, Preparare una crostata di funghi per un giorno in prestito, comes from Domenico Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina (mid-16th century) and was written specifically for a “day in Lent” — when meat and animal fats were forbidden, but richly savory dishes were still expected at noble tables.

🍄 What Mushrooms Did Renaissance Cooks Use?

The original recipe refers to morels and to "the mushroom that grows at the foot of chestnut trees and briar bushes," which was described as firm and orange-tinted. This likely refers to chanterelles or possibly Caesar’s mushrooms (Amanita caesarea), both highly prized in the Italian Renaissance for their flavor and availability in oak or chestnut woodlands.

Mushrooms were considered acceptable fare on Lenten days because they were "neither fish nor flesh" and grew from the earth like vegetables. However, because mushroom poisoning was a genuine concern, most cookery books urged boiling wild mushrooms before use—even if it dulled their flavor.

Modern Substitutions

If fresh morels or chanterelles are not available, a good blend of cremini, oyster, shiitake, or portobello mushrooms works well. Mixing mushroom varieties provides depth and richness that mimics wild foraged flavors. Dried morels or porcini reconstituted in warm water are also excellent for layering in that "woodland" taste.

Tip: Avoid standard white button mushrooms for this dish—they lack the earthiness that Renaissance cooks prized in their “funghi di bosco.”

Renaissance Herbs and Flavor Pairings

Herbs were not simply seasoning — they were medicinal, seasonal, and intentionally paired with ingredients based on their humoral qualities. Mushrooms were considered “cold and moist” in Galenic terms, so cooks balanced them with “warm and dry” herbs like parsley, thyme, marjoram, mint, or sage. In Lenten cookery, the brightness of lemon and the lift of fresh herbs helped transform otherwise heavy or plain components into elegant, aromatic fare.

Lent Across Renaissance Europe

Italian Renaissance kitchens handled Lenten restrictions with creativity and abundance. Meat and animal fats were forbidden, but olive oil, vegetables, herbs, and often fish or shellfish remained fair game. Dishes like this crostata show how satisfying “meatless” cuisine could be — rich in umami, layered with textures, and full of complexity.

Compared to northern regions like England or the Low Countries, where fasting meant salt fish, ale pottage, or butter-thickened gruel, Italian cooks had a Mediterranean bounty to draw from. Almond milk, pine nuts, mushrooms, and wild greens allowed even the most devout households to enjoy sumptuous meals — legally and liturgically.

What Does “Crostata” Mean?

The word crostata comes from the Italian root crosta, meaning “crust”, which itself derives from the Latin crusta, meaning “hard outer shell” or “rind.” Related terms in Latin include crustulum (a little cake or pastry — root of the word crustulum/crustule, used in medieval Latin cookery). 

By the 15th–16th centuries, crostata in Italy referred broadly to: 

• Open-faced baked tarts (savory or sweet), made with a pastry base and visible fillings 
• Savory pies (enclosed or partially enclosed) 
• In some regional or culinary contexts: toasted bread or “crusted” slices used as a base or vehicle for toppings — particularly in fast-day preparations 

This broader use was recognized by: 

• Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina (mid-16th c.), where crostata is used interchangeably with “pan ghiotto” (gourmand bread) 
• Scappi’s Opera (1570), where crostate appear throughout menus as both rich tarts and layered bread dishes 

In both cases, the "crust" or "base" was essential — whether that meant baked pastry or well-toasted slices of bread, depending on ingredients, season, and occasion..

Both Domenico Romoli in his La Singolare Dottrina (mid-16th c.) and Bartolomeo Scappi in his monumental Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570) include dozens of crostate — some encased in pastry, others built upon slices of bread or served open-faced in pans. For instance, Scappi describes crostate of vegetables, meat, cheese, or fish that are either baked in crusts or arranged on slices of toasted bread (Scappi, Book II, recipes 211–225).

In this recipe, the crostata is described as “pan ghiotto” — gourmand or luxurious bread — layered with savory toppings. The base is toasted or crusted bread, not pastry, aligning with Romoli's phrasing and period practice.  This usage parallels the French term “croûte” (as in en croûte), meaning food served on or enclsed in crusted bread or pastry.  All descend from the same Latin root - crusta - and highlight the central role of crust in both structure and flavor. 

While we might associate “crostata” today with sweet fruit tarts, its Renaissance meaning was far more versatile, often bridging the line between pastry and hearty antipasto.

It was served as part of the Second Service of Kitchen Antipasti (Secundo Servito – Antipasti di cucina) at the Baronial 12th Night 2024 feast, a transitional course featuring hot, savory appetizers. This crostata balances rustic simplicity with complex flavor: mushrooms sautéed with herbs and garlic, layered atop crisp bread and soft cheese. Its inspiration comes directly from the forest floor — a celebration of the humble mushroom elevated to banquet fare.

Preparare una crostata di funghi per un giorno in prestito – Mushroom Crostata for a Lenten Day

Courtesy of Jennifer Bishop | Baronial 12th Night 2024 – Secundo Servito, Antipasti di Cucina

This savory mushroom crostata was one of four composed appetizers served during the Second Service of Kitchen Antipasti (Secundo Servito – Antipasti di cucina) at the Baronial 12th Night 2024 Feast. The dish draws on Italian Renaissance sources like Domenico Romoli's La Singolare Dottrina, and is noted specifically as appropriate “per un giorno in prestito” – for a Lenten day. It’s vegetarian, full of woodland flavor, and easily adapted to suit modern dietary needs.

Feast Context

This antipasti course served as a flavorful bridge between cold pantry items and heavier meat dishes in a formal Italian Renaissance banquet. The mushroom crostata was served alongside:

• Per far crostate cioè pan ghiotto con barbaglia de porco, o presciutto – Gourmand bread with pork jowl or prosciutto – by Jennifer Bishop & Dan Parker
• Insalata di Cicorea Bianca – White chicory salad with raisins and shallots
• Uva in Salamoia – Pickled grapes

Plated antipasti course with crostate, salad, and pickled grapes – 12th Night 2024

Original Text

223. Get morels or else the mushroom that grows in the woods at the foot of chestnut trees and briar bushes, which is round and firm and tends toward an orange colour. The safest thing is to bring them to a boil in water, though they are much more flavorful raw. In any case, whether raw or cooked, peel them carefully, beat them small with a knife and saute them in oil. Then get those ingredients used in recipe 222, adding in beaten and sauteed spring onions or else a small clove of garlic. Make up a torte with them in the way outlined in the above recipe.

Modern Interpretation – Serves 8

Ingredients

• 1 12-inch baguette, sliced into ¾-inch diagonal slices
• Olive oil (for drizzling and sautéing)
• 1 lb mushrooms (cremini or wild, sliced)
• 2 green onions, thinly sliced
• 2 garlic cloves, thinly sliced
• 2 tbsp fresh lemon juice
• 1 tsp chopped fresh thyme
• 1 tbsp chopped fresh parsley
• ½ lb ricotta or other soft cheese
• Salt and black pepper to taste

Instructions

1. Toast baguette slices until golden. Drizzle with olive oil.
2. In a skillet, heat more olive oil and sauté mushrooms, green onions, and garlic until tender.
3. Stir in lemon juice, thyme, and parsley. Season with salt and pepper.
4. Spread ricotta onto each toast slice. Top with mushroom mixture.
5. Drizzle with additional olive oil. Cut each toast in half and serve warm.

Humoral Theory and Fasting Cuisine

Renaissance cooks operated under the framework of Galenic dietetics, which held that all foods had qualities — hot, cold, moist, dry — that affected the body’s balance of humors. Mushrooms were considered cold and moist, and thus could dampen digestion or cause melancholy if consumed without proper balance. To counteract this, recipes often paired them with warming, drying herbs like thyme, pepper, or mint, and used cooking methods like sautéing in oil to adjust their temperament. Even Lenten dishes like this crostata were not just about following rules — they were about preserving harmony in the body, especially during seasonal transitions and spiritual observances.

Notes and Substitutions

This is a rustic dish, originally made with wild mushrooms like morels or chestnut woodland varieties. The method is straightforward—chop, sauté, and season well. The addition of ricotta is a nod to Renaissance *torte* fillings, even though the Lenten version may have omitted it. 

Dietary Suggestions:

• Vegetarian: ✔️
• Vegan Option: Substitute vegan ricotta or herbed cashew cheese
• Gluten-Free Option: Use gluten-free toast or polenta rounds

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Serving Suggestions

While Renaissance cooks didn’t serve crostate with “sides” as we think of them today, dishes like this were part of a richly varied course of hot antipasti. To replicate the experience, consider pairing with:

• Insalata di cicorea – bitter chicory greens with raisins and shallots
• Uva in salamoia – pickled grapes to offset the fat and salt
• Another crostata, such as mushrooms in pastry for variety
• Soft cheese with herbs or small fried cheese fritters
• Savory eggs or bite-sized sausages
• Fried bread with sugar and cinnamon as a bridging flavor

This crostata is best served hot, but does well at room temperature. Ideally it would be served as part of a shared platter or buffet-style second service of antipasti di cucina.

🍽️ Explore the Full Antipasti Course

• Gourmand Bread with Pork Jowl or Prosciutto
• White Chicory Salad with Raisins and Shallots
• Pickled Grapes

📘 Historical References

• Domenico Romoli, La Singolare Dottrina (Venice, 1560s) – Culinary guide for household stewards. Referenced crostata of mushrooms and "pan ghiotto".
• Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570) – Comprehensive Renaissance cookbook. See: Book II (Crostate Recipes).
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Pan Ghiotto con Barbaglia – Scappi’s Renaissance Crostate with Pork Jowl or Prosciutto (1570)

Secundo Servito – Antipasti di Cucina (Second Service of Kitchen Appetizers)

Crostate di barbaglia, crostata di funghi, insalata di cicorea, and uva in salamoia — prepped and ready for service at 12th Night.

In the structure of a formal Italian Renaissance feast, the second course was not necessarily the heaviest—it was often a bridge between light pantry offerings and more substantial meat dishes. This Secundo Servito, or Second Service, featured Antipasti di Cucina: hot or composed savory appetizers prepared fresh from the kitchen, in contrast to the simpler cold antipasti di credenza served earlier.

These warm antipasti were designed to stimulate the appetite and prepare the body for digestion according to Galenic principles—the humoral theory that governed much of Renaissance cooking. Dishes often balanced sweet and sour flavors, incorporated herbs for digestive support, and reused day-old bread or preserved meats to show both economy and elegance.

Our 12th Night Second Service of Antipasti took inspiration directly from Bartolomeo Scappi’s 1570 masterpiece Opera dell’arte del cucinare. This course was curated and prepared by Jennifer Bishop, with generous contributions from Dan Parker, who substituted his homemade bacon in place of prosciutto with delicious results.

Served in the Second Antipasti Course:

• Per far crostate cioè pan ghiotto con barbaglia de porco, o presciutto – “To prepare crostate—that is, gourmand bread—with salted pork jowl or prosciutto”
  Courtesy of Jennifer Bishop & Dan Parker
• Preparare una crostata di funghi per un giorno in prestito – “To prepare a crostata of mushrooms (for a fast day)”
  Courtesy of Jennifer Bishop
• Insalata di Cicorea Bianca – White chicory salad with raisins and shallots
• Uva in Salamoia – Pickled grapes

Each dish reflects Renaissance preferences for layered flavors and textures—toasted bread with rich toppings, sharp greens softened with sweet fruit, and preserved grapes offering a tart palate cleanser. The mushroom tart, notably, is drawn from Scappi’s frequent practice of offering giorni di magro (fast day) variants for religious observance.

Did You Know? Scappi’s antipasti courses regularly included both meat and vegetable preparations, showcasing not just opulence but also culinary mindfulness—adapting to dietary restrictions and balancing the humors.

🍞 Crostate – Gourmand Bread with Pork Jowl or Prosciutto

Course: Second Service – Antipasti di Cucina
Source: Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570)
Modern Redaction: Jennifer Bishop (with homemade bacon courtesy of Dan Parker!)
Serves: 16
Tags: Renaissance, Appetizer, Pork, SCA Feast

📜 The Original and Modern Translation

Scappi’s Original (1570)

Friggasi [le fette di pane] in butiro, overo in lardo liquefatto, et habbiasi barbaglia di porco tagliata in fette, overo presciutto, et soffrigganosi nella padella con cipollette battute, et cime di salvia, et come saranno soffritte, pongasi in esse un poco di aceto, et mosto cotto, over zuccaro, et pepe, et cannella, dandovi una calda, et habbianosi apparecchiate le fette del pane nel piatto bagnate con un poco di grasso caldo, et pongansi sopra la barbaglia o il presciutto, con l’altre materie, et servansi calda.

Modern Translation

Fry the bread in butter or melted lard. Slice the pork jowl or prosciutto and sauté in a pan with spring onions and sage tips. When done, add a little vinegar, reduced must or sugar, pepper and cinnamon; heat well. Arrange the toasted, greased bread slices on a platter, top with the jowl or prosciutto and the sauce, and serve hot.

🥄 Modern Recipe (Serves 16)

Ingredients

• 1 12-inch baguette—sliced into 3/4-inch slices on a diagonal
• 8 thin slices prosciutto (or homemade bacon), halved
• 1 leek or spring onion, thinly sliced
• 1 tsp dried or fresh minced sage
• 1/4 tsp black pepper
• Pinch of cinnamon
• 1 tsp sugar
• 2 tbsp water
• 2 tbsp mosto cotto (grape must syrup)
• Extra-virgin olive oil or melted lard for frying

Instructions

1. Toast the baguette slices in a skillet with olive oil or lard until golden and crisp. Set aside.
2. Sauté the prosciutto or bacon with the sliced leek and sage until lightly browned.
3. Add vinegar, sugar, water, mosto cotto, pepper, and cinnamon. Simmer until the liquid thickens slightly into a sauce.
4. Arrange toasted bread slices on a serving platter. Spoon the meat mixture and sauce over each slice. Serve warm.

🍇 Bonus Recipe: Mosto Cotto (Grape Must Syrup)

Yield: About 1 small jar

• 4 pounds fresh grapes (any dark variety)

1. Wash grapes and remove them from the stems. Crush to extract juice (use a food mill, juicer, or your hands).
2. Strain juice through a fine mesh sieve or muslin to remove skins and seeds.
3. Pour the juice into a heavy-bottomed pot and simmer gently until reduced by one-third.
4. The syrup should be thick and coat a spoon. It will continue to thicken as it cools.
5. Pour into sterilized jars. Some age it up to 24 months, but it's ready to use once cooled.

🍽️ Dietary & Service Notes

• Contains: Gluten, Pork, Alliums
• Vegetarian Version: Omit the pork and replace with sautéed mushrooms and walnuts (for feast day adaptation)
• Feast Service: Best served warm on platters, pre-assembled and sauced
• Labels: Antipasti, Appetizer, Renaissance, Pork

Pizza di Molti Strati – A Renaissance Baklava-Style Pastry with Elderflower & Rosewater

Despite the familiar name, this 16th-century “pizza” from Scappi bears no resemblance to modern flatbreads. Instead, it’s a delicate multi-layered pastry, brushed with butter, dusted with sugar and elderflower, and bathed in rosewater syrup. It’s likely a descendant of early Middle Eastern “baklava”‑style desserts—transmitted along Silk Road routes and adopted by Italian Renaissance cooks.

Historical Background

The tradition of layered pastry desserts originates in Middle Eastern and Byzantine cuisines. A 13th-century Arabic confection called lauzinaj—almond paste wrapped in ultra-thin dough and drenched in syrup—was an early ancestor to European versions. Phyllo dough itself traces back to Ancient Greek and Ottoman pastry techniques.

By the 16th century, Italian cooks like Scappi adapted the concept into a simplified “cold layered pizza,” blending Western sugars, elderflower, and rosewater into a visually striking—yet humble—pastry.

A Historical Journey Through Layered Pastry

This “pizza di molti strati” connects to a rich, layered history of syrup-drenched pastry desserts—evolving from Greco-Roman flat cakes to Byzantine, Arabic, and Ottoman specialties, finally taking elegant form in Renaissance Italy.

• Greco-Roman plakous & placenta – Layered pastries with dough, cheese, and honey. Cato the Elder’s placenta cake describes alternating layers of dough and cheese, baked and sweetened with honey.
• Byzantine koptoplakous – A nut-filled, syrup-drenched cake from Constantinople, widely regarded as an early form of baklava. Cited in culinary studies on Byzantine dessert culture.
• Arabic lauzinaj – Medieval almond paste pastries wrapped in thin dough and scented with rosewater. See: Scents and Flavors – Early Baklava Recipe.
• Ottoman Baklava & Phyllo Mastery – Ottoman chefs refined paper-thin dough layering in imperial kitchens. Syrups, nuts, and floral waters became standard. See Baklava – Wikipedia.
• Italian Renaissance Adaptation – Scappi’s 1570 *pizza di molti strati* replaces nuts with elderflower, and introduces a cold-serving presentation. It reflects Italy’s interpretation of a global dessert tradition.
  🍽️ What’s in a Name? A Slice of Pizza’s Etymology
  
  The word pizza may conjure images of tomato sauce and cheese—but its linguistic roots tell a far older story. The earliest known use dates to 997 CE in a Latin document from Gaeta, Italy, referring to a simple “focaccia”-style bread. But where the term *actually* comes from remains debated:

  • Ancient Greek pikte ("fermented pastry") or pitta ("flatbread")
  • Latin pinsa (from pinsere, “to press or flatten”)
  • Old High German bizzo or pizzo (“a bite” or “mouthful”)
  • Italian pizzicare (“to pluck” quickly from the oven)
  • Even Aramaic pita, referring to flatbread

  Linguists and food historians—like Jim Chevallier—have explored these etymologies in depth. In Scappi’s 1570 *Opera*, “pizza” still referred to a layered or folded pastry, not the tomato-covered dish we know today.
  
  Source: Linguistic and historical research courtesy of Jim Chevallier. For more, see discussions on Facebook and works on bread and early pizza history.

Original Recipe (Scappi, 1570)

“Per fare la pizza di molti strati, comunemente freddi pasta secca a strati: pigli uno foglio di pasta tirata sottile... tra ciascuno spargi burro, zucchero, ed erbe di sambuco... e quando è cotta servi fredda con zucchero e acqua di rose.”
—Bartolomeo Scappi, Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570)

Modern English Translation

“To make a pizza of many layers, commonly served cold: take a sheet of pasta rolled out thin... between each one sprinkle butter, sugar, and elder flowers... and when it is cooked, serve cold with sugar and rosewater.”

Renaissance Kitchen Imagery

Woodcut from Scappi’s Opera (1570), showing layered pastry prep and kitchen tools.

“Pizza di Molti Strati” Recipe (Scappi, 1570)

Ingredients

• ½ pack filo (phyllo) dough (homemade if time allows)
• ¼ lb butter, melted
• 1 cup sugar
• 2 Tbsp dried elderflower
• Rosewater, to drizzle

Method

1. Preheat oven to 400 °F (or follow filo package instructions).
2. Keep melted butter warm. Lay one sheet of filo in a greased tart pan.
3. Brush with butter, dust with sugar & elderflower. Layer three sheets, then repeat until 12 sheets are used, finishing with sugar & elderflower.
4. Slice into triangles. Bake until golden brown.
5. Let cool, then serve cold with a drizzle of rosewater.

If serving a small group, homemade phyllo is highly recommended—it adds freshness and flavor.

🌸 Floral Flourishes:
Elderflower and rosewater were prized in Renaissance kitchens for their fragrance and humoral balance. In this pastry, they elevate simple layers into something aromatic, symbolic, and beautiful.

Trays of Pizza di Molti Strati and Mele Cotogne stufate con pignoli, acqua rosa, e zuccaro — quince stewed with pine nuts, rosewater, and sugar — ready for service at Flaming Gryphon 12th Night, 2024.

Want to make this for your next feast? Try homemade filo—it’s elegant, surprisingly satisfying, and perfect with a cup of warm spiced tea.

Primary Source Access

• Scappi’s Opera dell’arte del cucinare (1570) – Archive.org
• Full Italian Text on Google Books (1570 Edition)

What Did People Eat for Breakfast in the Middle Ages?

🍳 What Did People Eat for Breakfast in the Middle Ages?

Van Coeck te Backen (Nyeuwen Coock Boeck, 16th c.): A yeasted bread enriched with smoky bacon and aromatic fennel seed, folded directly into the dough.

While the word "breakfast" existed in medieval English, it didn’t mean what it does today. Most people in the Middle Ages ate one or two meals per day, and early meals were typically reserved for laborers, the sick, or the very wealthy. However, there were still foods enjoyed in the morning to break the night’s fast—especially during feast days, travel, or before demanding work.

This post gathers ten historically inspired dishes from primary sources like Harleian MS 279 and Renaissance German cookbooks that could have graced a medieval table in the morning hours.

⚠️ Historical Note: The term "breakfast" in the medieval world referred to the act of breaking one's fast after sleep, not a structured meal like today. Our use here reflects the modern definition: the first meal of the day.

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1. Rastons

Rastons (Harleian MS 279): A rich, egg- and ale-enriched pastry loaf once mistaken for bread. Served sliced into “sops” — thick pieces of bread meant to soak up broth or milk — Rastons were an early morning or supper dish that blurred the line between bread and indulgent pastry. Perfect warm from the oven or reheated with broth poured over top.

2. Soupes Dorye

Soupes Dorye (Harleian MS 279): Toasted bread sops soaked in almond milk, saffron, and warming spices. A gentle, nourishing dish, especially favored on fast days or during illness recovery—delicate, comforting, and easy to digest.

3. Lyode Soppes

Lyode Soppes (Harleian MS 279): A custardy bread pudding made with milk, egg, and warm spices. Served hot and soft, it’s one of the earliest surviving recipes for a sweet breakfast pudding—perfect for breaking a medieval fast.

4. Soupes Jamberlayne

Soupes Jamberlayne (Harleian MS 279): Toasted bread soaked in spiced, sweetened wine and served warm. This elegant dish reflects the medieval love of richly flavored comfort foods, especially in noble households or for special occasions.

5. Egges yn Brewte

Egges yn Brewte (Gentyll Manly Cokere, MS Pepys 1047): Poached eggs served in a saffron-colored broth with cheese and warming spices. A refined dish likely served to the wealthy or clerics, offering protein and elegance in equal measure.

6. Eyron en Poche

Eyron en Poche (Harleian MS 279): Poached eggs served with herbs in broth or sauce—simple, nourishing, and elegant. This early morning dish reflects a refined yet accessible preparation for those with access to fresh eggs and kitchen skill.

7. Pressmetzen zu Ostern

Pressmetzen zu Ostern (Renaissance Germany): Soft Lenten rolls flavored with subtle spice and meant for Easter vigil meals. While tied to liturgical feasting, they make a fitting morning bread—especially for fast-day observance or travel.

8. Spiced Apples and Pears

Spiced Apples and Pears (Chiquart’s 'On Cookery', 1420): Fruit stewed in wine, honey, and spices—a luxurious dish found in both monastic and elite kitchens. Served warm and fragrant, it made a welcome break to the morning fast in colder months.

9. Fennel and Bacon Bread

Van Coeck te Backen (Nyeuwen Coock Boeck, 16th c.): A rustic yeasted bread enriched with smoky bacon and aromatic fennel seed. This hearty loaf was likely eaten fresh in the morning or packed for travel—savory, sustaining, and deeply flavorful.

10. Frumenty and Venyson in Broth

Venyson in Broth with Frumenty (Harleian MS 279): Tender game meat in spiced broth, served with a cracked wheat porridge. Though rich by modern standards, this would have been an energizing dish for hunters or noble households before a day of labor or travel.

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These dishes reveal the breadth and nuance of medieval morning meals—even if they weren't always called "breakfast" by name. Whether you’re prepping for an SCA feast, building a persona menu, or just want to try something historically inspired, these options offer a window into what it meant to break the fast in centuries past.

Want more? Explore these tags to expand your medieval breakfast table:

• Medieval Breakfast
• Pottage
• Bread

Piatti de marzapani frigiati di oro - Plates of golden fried marzipan

Plates of Golden Fried Marzipan: A Renaissance Delight from Messisbugo

Among the lavish sweets presented at the 12th Night 2024 feast were these exquisite morsels: golden fried marzipan parcels inspired by Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s 16th-century banquet manual. As a court steward to the Duke of Ferrara, Messisbugo carefully documented not only recipes but the artistry of elite Renaissance dining. One such recipe, Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro, reflects both culinary skill and a love for edible ornament.

Original Italian (Messisbugo, 1549)

Piatti di marzapani frigiati di oro: Prendi marzapane, et fanne certi tondi o quadrelli, et involgili in una sfoglia sottile fatta di pasta, et friggili con buon strutto caldo; et cavati che saranno, spolverizzali di zucchero, et ponli in piatti, et sopra vi metterai dell’oro fino, se vorrai fare bella cosa.

English Translation

Plates of golden fried marzipan: Take marzipan and form small rounds or squares. Wrap them in a thin pastry sheet, and fry them in good hot lard. Once they are removed, sprinkle with sugar and place them on dishes. If you wish to make a beautiful presentation, place fine gold on top.

Modern Interpretation (Serves 8–12)

Ingredients

• 1 frozen pie pastry (or homemade pastry dough)
• 1 1/2 cups almond flour
• 1 cup powdered sugar
• 3 tbsp water
• 1 tsp rosewater
• 1/2 tsp "common spices" (e.g., cinnamon, clove, nutmeg)

Instructions

1. Roll out the pie pastry as thin as possible.
2. Mix together almond flour, sugar, water, rosewater, and spices to form a soft marzipan dough.
3. Cut pastry into rounds or squares. Add 1 tsp of filling to each, fold over and seal.
4. Fry in hot oil until golden. Drain and sprinkle with sugar before serving.

Historical Context: Marzipan in Italian Renaissance Cuisine

Marzipan was considered a luxurious ingredient in Renaissance Italy, associated with wealth, celebration, and spectacle. Made from almonds and sugar—both costly imports—it was often shaped into elaborate sculptures or used in gilded dishes like this one. Serving it fried and topped with gold or saffron was a way to display status and culinary refinement.

The origins of marzipan are widely debated. Some trace it to the Middle East, introduced into Europe via Arab-Spanish cuisine, while others credit Italian apothecaries who sold almond-based pastes as medicinal treats. By the 15th and 16th centuries, it had become a staple of courtly desserts across Italy, Germany, and Iberia.

Research Note: This modern interpretation was informed in part by the Italian historical food blog Cucina Medievale, a trusted source for Italian Renaissance culinary research and one of our favorite reference sites.

Source Access

The original recipe appears in Cristoforo di Messisbugo’s Banchetti, composizioni di vivande et apparecchio generale (Venice, 1549). A digitized facsimile is available via the Internet Archive. (Note: the searchable text may be corrupted, but the PDF version is accurate.)

See all dishes from the 12th Night 2024 feast by browsing the 12th Night tag or checking out this collection.

Related Recipes: You might also enjoy Struffoli: Honeyed Fried Dough, another Renaissance sweet served alongside the marzipan at this feast.

Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

🍯 Honeyed Fancies: Fried Struffoli from Scappi's Kitchen

Honeyed Struffoli with Candied Fruit, Served with Marzipan at the 12th Night 2024 Feast
A modern interpretation of Scappi’s 16th-century recipe, these golden morsels were served as part of the appetizer selection.

As part of the 12th Night 2024 feast, guests were greeted with beautiful trays of struffoli — crisp, golden morsels glazed in warm honey and crowned with jeweled candied fruit. This appetizer, adapted from Bartolomeo Scappi’s 16th-century cookbook Opera, captures the festive spirit and elegant artistry of Renaissance banquet tables.

🍽️ Explore the Full Feast: See the complete 12th Night 2024 Menu to discover other historical dishes served during the event.

Scappi was a master cook to Pope Pius V, and his recipes reflect the sophistication of high court cuisine in Italy. These honeyed fritters, served cold, would have dazzled diners with their texture and ornamentation. The original text appears in Libro Quinto, Cap. CXXXV, and can be found in resources like Domenico Romoli’s La Singolare Dottrina.

Scappi’s Original Italian (Cap. CXXXV):

Attanfi dieci oua fresche nate di quel giorno, & impastinsicon esse fior di farina alquanto piu liquida della fopradetta, & per fpatio di mezz’horasia ben rimenata sopra la tauola, & poi distendasi essa pasta in ruotoli sottili, come se si volesse fare ciambellette...

...con un coltello si taglierà e i ruotoli a dadi, & tagliati che saranno in gran numero, si lasceranno alquanto rasciugare, & poi con strutto che non sia troppo caldo, si friggeranno, avvertendo che non piglino troppo colore, & con la cocchiara forata cavisino, e si lascino scolare, poi habbisi una cazzuola con mele schiumato che sia ben caldo, & frigghifino in esso mele, dandoli una volta, & subito si cavino, & cavati che saranno, faccinsene castelli, & altre fantafie, & servinofreddi.

🍋 Modern Recipe: Honeyed Struffoli (Serves 8)

This version of struffoli preserves the festive spirit of Scappi's recipe while adapting it for a modern kitchen. These delightful bites can be made ahead and assembled just before serving.

Ingredients

• 2⅔ cups flour
• 4½ tbsp unsalted butter
• 1 tbsp lemon juice
• Pinch of salt
• 2 medium eggs
• ⅔ cup sugar
• Zest of 1 orange
• Zest of ½ lemon

For Garnish

• 1⅓ cups honey
• Silver or gold sprinkles
• Candied cherries
• Candied orange peel

Instructions

1. In a large bowl, combine flour, softened butter, salt, sugar, citrus zest, lemon juice, and eggs. Mix vigorously by hand until a rough dough forms.
2. Turn dough onto a floured surface and knead until smooth. Wrap in plastic and refrigerate for at least 2 hours.
3. After chilling, divide dough into 1 cm wide ropes and roll out. Cut into small pieces, about ⅓ inch in size.
4. Heat oil to 325°F. Fry pieces in small batches until golden brown. Remove and drain on paper towels.
5. Warm honey gently in a pan. Add the fried pieces and stir to coat.
6. Arrange on a platter in a mound or ring. Garnish with sprinkles and candied fruit. Serve at room temperature.

Storage Tip: Fried dough can be made up to 2–3 days in advance. Store in an airtight container and glaze with honey just before serving.

🧾 Translating Scappi: Then vs. Now

Scappi’s original recipe begins with a rich dough made from “ten fresh eggs of the day,” kneaded with fine flour until soft and elastic. Our modern version keeps the egg-based richness, but scales it for today’s kitchens—using two eggs along with butter and citrus for added aroma and softness.

Scappi instructs the cook to roll and cut the dough into “dadi” (dice), which are dried slightly and then fried in strutto (pork fat). We preserve the shape and technique but fry in neutral oil at 325°F for ease and availability. Once cooked, the pieces are tossed in “skimmed honey,” a process mirrored in our version by gently warming the honey and folding the fritters in until glazed. His final flourish—stacking the morsels into “castles and other fancies”—is echoed in our presentation, topped with candied fruit and festive sprinkles.

📚 Inspiration

This recipe was inspired by La Singolare Dottrina di M. Domenico Romoli and Scappi’s Opera, foundational texts in Renaissance culinary tradition.

Try Another Dish from the Feast: Don’t miss our recipe for Tortelletti d’Herba alla Lombarda, a savory herb-filled pasta that accompanied these sweet fritters at the table.

Tags: 12th Night, SCA Feast, Historical Recipes, Renaissance Cooking, Bartolomeo Scappi, Medieval Appetizer, Struffoli, Italian Holiday Food

Feasting on Fish: Five Historical Recipes from Harleian MS 279

Five Medieval Fish Recipes from Harleian MS 279

Iuselle of Fish, adapted from Harleian MS 279 — a delicate almond milk and saffron broth served with root vegetables, fruit, and rustic bread.

From fasting feasts to Friday fare, fish played a key role in medieval English cooking. Harleian Manuscript 279, compiled around 1430, contains dozens of fish recipes revealing the rich, layered flavors and creative preparations used in upper-class kitchens. Below are five standout dishes from that manuscript, all adapted or interpreted for the modern cook.

1. Tench Three Ways

Read the full recipe and interpretation

This unique entry shows off the versatility of medieval fish cookery. The tench is served boiled, in a broth, and roasted — each with different sauces or seasonings, ranging from parsley-based green sauce to a pottage enriched with almond milk and spices.

2. Mortrews of Fish

Read the full recipe and interpretation

Here, fish is cooked and then pounded smooth with breadcrumbs and flavorful ingredients like almond milk, saffron, and sugar. Served warm and thick, this dish is a satisfying meatless main and an excellent example of medieval texture-forward cooking.

3. Sturyon in Broth

Read the full recipe and interpretation

This spiced broth balances vinegar, pepper, and saffron to create a sharp yet warming sauce for chunks of fish — originally sturgeon, but modern substitutions like salmon or cod work just as well.

4. Iuschelle of Fish

Read the full recipe and interpretation

“Iuschelle” refers to a gently spiced dish, somewhere between a stew and a sauce. The fish is flaked and simmered in almond milk, saffron, and breadcrumbs, yielding a light but elegant presentation that fits well as a first course.

5. Roseye – Fish in Rose Sauce

Read the full chicken version (fish variation included)

Although your blog post features the chicken version, the original recipe allows for fish as well. The dish combines fried fish with a saffron-almond-rose sauce colored naturally with rose petals. It’s a fragrant, subtly sweet, and visually stunning dish — perfect for a final course or Lenten feast.

Historical Context

Harleian MS 279 reflects the dietary rules and creativity of the 15th-century English court. With meat forbidden during fast days, cooks leaned into fish, legumes, and dairy alternatives like almond milk. The use of fragrant spices, vinegars, and herbal sauces made these dishes anything but bland — and many remain surprisingly approachable for the modern table.

Want to Try One?

Leave a comment or tag me if you cook one of these! For printable versions, check out the recipe cards on Ko-fi. You can also browse other fasting-friendly or Lenten dishes using the tags at the bottom of each post.

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🐚 More Historical Shellfish Recipes

• Oystres en Broth (ixl)
• Oystres in Gravy Bastard (xl)
• Oysters in Brewet (lxxxxij)
• Welks in Bruette (lxxxxiij)

Explore more Fish Recipes and Fasting Dishes on the blog.

Sources: Harleian MS 279, Curye on Inglysch, Two Fifteenth-Century Cookery Books

Flavors of the Flower: 5 Medieval Recipes Using Edible Blooms

Flavors of the Flower: 5 Medieval Recipes Using Edible Blooms

Woodcut of a Gilliflower from John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629). Parkinson praised the gilliflower’s “spicy sent” and its usefulness in syrups and conserves.

In the late Middle Ages, edible flowers adorned more than just gardens—they featured prominently on elite banquet tables as key ingredients in both sweet and savory dishes. From the delicate rose and primrose to more assertive blooms like hawthorn and violet, flowers served to tint, scent, and thicken custards, broths, and pottages. These floral additions were not only visually and gastronomically appealing but also aligned with humoral theory: the belief that food's temperamental qualities could support the physical and emotional balance of the diner.

This post is a curated collection of medieval recipes that utilize edible flowers for more than just decoration. You'll find my modern take on Rede Rose, a silky custard infused with rose petals, alongside historical dishes and inspiration for planting your own edible flower garden. If you’re interested in recreating these recipes, don’t miss the section on safe modern substitutes and preservation techniques. The methods and virtues of these flowers are reflected not only in recipe manuscripts but in early gardening manuals and herbal lore—including John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole, A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

📜 Archived Reference: Medieval Herbs We Grow Chiefly as Flowers

Compiled by Agnes deLanvallei (March 2005)
Originally published at KeelerAnderson.net; now preserved via the Internet Archive.
→ View the full original table

Note: These flowers were edible in the Middle Ages, though many are no longer commonly eaten. Always verify organic, untreated sources before consuming. Individuals with allergies should avoid plants in families known to trigger reactions.

Common Name	Scientific Name	Family	Notes / Uses
Borage	Borago officinalis	Boraginaceae	Flowers and leaves eaten raw or cooked; safe and uplifting
Calendula (Pot Marigold)	Calendula officinalis	Asteraceae	Used in salads and broths; petals are edible and medicinal
Carnation / Gillyflower	Dianthus spp.	Caryophyllaceae	Edible flowers; valued for scent and beauty
Lavender	Lavandula officinalis	Lamiaceae	Used for fragrance and culinary syrups
Rose	Rosa spp.	Rosaceae	Petals used in syrups, custards, and conserves
Violet	Viola odorata	Violaceae	Scented variety used in cooking and syrups
Pansy / Heartsease	Viola tricolor	Violaceae	Safe edible flowers; used ornamentally

Original Compilation: Agnes deLanvallei, 2005. Published at KeelerAnderson.net (archived 2016).
Content adapted under fair use for educational and archival preservation. Original archive link: Wayback Machine.

Want to explore more about historical edible flowers? Visit Agnes de Lanvallei’s Medieval Herbs We Grow Chiefly as Flowers—an excellent resource on what was grown, used, and enjoyed during the period.

Section 1: Featured Recipe – Rede Rose

Rede Rose is a 15th-century English custard enriched with almond milk and egg yolks and delicately flavored with rose petals. In my interpretation, I blend the ingredients and gently cook them in a double boiler until thickened to a smooth consistency. The result is a creamy, floral custard with nostalgic charm and subtle elegance. It was well received—three taste-testers all went back for more.

🔍 Read the full Rede Rose recipe and interpretation here

Section 2: The Other Floral Recipes

Medieval cooks used flowers not just for flavor but also for fragrance, symbolism, and aesthetic beauty. The following recipes represent a variety of culinary traditions from the period—ranging from rich custards to savory pottages and festive garnishes.

• Cviij. Prymerose – A custard thickened with rice flour and scented with primrose flowers. Includes almond milk, ginger, and saffron.
• Cxxvij. Prymerose – Made “in the same manner as the violet dish.”
• Cxxviij. Flowrys of Hawþorn – Prepared “as vyolet,” per the manuscript.
• Vyolette (Sweet Custard Style) – A gentle, egg-thickened custard infused with violet petals.
• Vyolette (With Fruit and Spices) – A richer version with dates, sugar, pine nuts, and almond milk; reminiscent of a floral frumenty.
• Dandelion Greens (Dent-de-lion) – A savory dish exploring dandelion as a medieval edible green.

Note: Some recipes were garnished with gilliflowers purely for presentation rather than flavor, such as Cawdelle Ferry and Pumpes.

Section 3: Historical Culinary Techniques for Flower-Based Dishes

Medieval kitchens employed specific techniques when preparing flower-based recipes. These methods combined practical cooking skills with the medical philosophies of the time:

• Infusion in Liquids: Flowers such as rose, violet, primrose, and lavender were steeped in almond milk, wine, or water to extract their essence and color—techniques echoed in Parkinson and early apothecary texts.
• Thickening Agents: Recipes often used rice flour, egg yolks, or breadcrumbs to create custard-like textures, as seen in Rede Rose and Prymerose.
• Garnishing and Gilding: Petals like gilliflowers and calendula were added as visual flourishes—sometimes even gilded with edible gold for a luxurious touch.
• Layering Flavors: Flowers were combined with dates, sugar, spices, and nuts to balance or enhance the dish, a technique preserved in dishes like Vyolette with Fruit and Spices.
• Medicinal Use: Many flowers were believed to have healing properties aligned with humoral theory. For example, borage was used to “gladden the heart” and violets to cool and comfort the spirit, according to both Parkinson and early modern herbals.

Section 4: Sweet vs. Savory – Matching Flowers to Flavor Profiles

Not all flowers belong in dessert. Here's a guide to choosing edible blooms based on their flavor compatibility—paired with historical insights from John Parkinson’s Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629):

Best for Sweet Dishes:

• Rose: Floral and fruity; used in custards, jams, and syrups. Parkinson praises it as “the chiefest flower for beauty, smell and use... the conserve of the red rose is of much use among the gentlewomen.”
• Violets: Mildly sweet and delicate; perfect for candying and desserts. Parkinson notes, “The blew Violets are much used in Possets, Syrups, and Conserves... and to comfort the heart.”
• Primrose: Subtly sweet; often used in custards or steeped in sweet wine. Parkinson recommends them for “comforting the brain and spirits, and sweet waters made of them refresh the senses.”
• Gillyflowers (Clove-pinks or Carnations): Though often decorative, Parkinson remarks on their “spicy sent... good in conserves and syrups.”

Best for Savory Dishes:

• Borage: Cucumber-like; great in salads or chilled soups. Parkinson writes, “The flowers are candied, or put into wine to exhilarate the spirits.”
• Calendula (Marigold): Peppery and colorful; used as a saffron substitute in rice or eggs. Parkinson notes, “It is of good use to garnish meats and salads... the broth wherein it is boiled is good to comfort the heart.”
• Chamomile: Mild apple scent; infuses well into teas or syrups. Parkinson calls it “a soother of pain and a comfort to the stomach.”
• Lavender: Intense and perfumed; used sparingly in sugar or honey infusions. Parkinson states, “The flowers steeped in wine... do strengthen the stomach and make the heart merry.”

Section 5: Ensuring Flower Safety in the Garden

If you're planning to grow edible flowers, follow these safety tips to ensure they’re safe to eat. While medieval gardeners like Parkinson wrote at length about the virtues of each bloom, they also relied on intimate plant knowledge and seasonal observation. For modern cooks, extra caution ensures both beauty and safety at the table.

• Use only edible species: Confirm plant identity using reputable sources. Avoid look-alikes that may be toxic.
• Start with culinary-grade or organic seed: Many ornamental flowers are treated with pesticides and are not safe for consumption.
• Grow organically: Avoid herbicides or synthetic sprays; opt for natural pest management or companion planting.
• Harvest responsibly: Pick in the morning after dew has dried. Use only the petals unless the entire flower is known to be edible.
• Clean gently: Rinse flowers in cool water and allow to dry completely before use.
• When in doubt, leave it out: Never eat a flower unless you are certain it is edible and untreated.

For historical gardeners, flower safety was closely tied to herbal knowledge and household management. As A Book of Fruits & Flowers and A Plain Plantain both suggest, flowers were viewed as food, medicine, and memory—requiring both reverence and care.

Section 6: Preserving Flowers – Pickling, Sugaring, and Wine Infusions

Preserving flowers was a vital part of historical kitchen and apothecary life. Whether through vinegar, sugar, or wine, cooks and herbalists ensured that blossoms could be used for flavor, medicine, and beauty long after their season passed. These practices are well documented in early sources like Paradisi in Sole (1629), A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

Pickled Flowers and Floral Vinegars:

Pickling flower buds and petals added brightness to savory dishes and infused subtle floral or herbal notes into vinegars and brines.

• Rosebuds: The 1653 manual preserves rosebuds with vinegar, cinnamon, and cloves for sauces and medicinal syrups.
• Violets: Used in vinegar-based salads and fish sauces. Landrum notes their cooling properties and popularity in gentle syrups.
• Primroses: Often soaked in wine or vinegar; Parkinson describes their use in “sweet waters” to comfort the brain and heart.
• Calendula: Added to broths and herbal vinegars for its warming, cheering effect—referenced in both 17th- and 20th-century texts.

Basic historical-style pickling method:

1. Gently rinse and blanch flower petals or buds.
2. Place in a spiced vinegar solution (e.g., wine vinegar with cloves, mustard seed, or bay leaf).
3. Seal in jars and allow to steep in a cool place for several days.

Sugared and Candied Flowers:

Sweet preservation was both decorative and medicinal. Candied flowers appeared on subtleties, marchpanes, and biscuits, or were simmered into syrups for drinks and electuaries.

• Violets, Roses, Primroses, and Gilliflowers: Parkinson provides detailed instructions for conserves and sugared flowers. The 1653 book includes recipes for drying and candying blossoms for health and beauty. Landrum refers to them as “petals crystallized like poetry.”
• Lavender & Marigold: Sometimes simmered in honey for use in preserves, or added to floral syrups.

Flowers Preserved in Wine:

Infusing wine with flowers was another way to preserve and extract flavor or medicinal value—commonly done in medieval and early modern households:

• Hippocras: A spiced wine infusion including rose or rosemary flowers, used as both a tonic and celebration drink. Parkinson references flowered wines in courtly and apothecary contexts.
• Primrose, Violet, Chamomile, and Borage: Often steeped in wine or ale for “cordial” effects. Landrum records borage wine to uplift the melancholy and primrose wine to refresh the mind.
• Comfrey and Ivy: Soaked in wine with honey for use in healing tinctures—described in the 1653 manual under medicinal preserves.

Preserving flowers in wine, sugar, or vinegar allowed medieval and early modern cooks to keep a garden’s essence through the seasons—transforming fleeting blooms into shelf-stable medicines, syrups, confections, and cordials.

Historical Recipes: Flowers Preserved in Wine, Honey, and Vinegar

Early modern herbal and household texts provide us with several detailed methods for preserving edible flowers. These examples are drawn from Paradisi in Sole, A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653), The Good Huswifes Jewell (1596), and Grace Landrum’s A Plain Plantain (1911).

🍷 Flowers in Wine

• Primrose Wine: Steep fresh primrose petals in white wine with sugar. Strain and bottle after several days. Described in Parkinson as a cordial “to comfort the brain and spirits.”
• Borage Wine: Borage flowers were infused in white wine or ale with citrus peel and honey—used to cheer the heart and “drive away melancholy.” Mentioned by Landrum and Parkinson.

🍯 Flowers in Honey or Syrup

• Syrup of Violets: From the 1653 manual. Pound violet petals, steep in warm water, strain, and simmer with sugar. Used for coughs or to sweeten medicinal drinks.
• Honey of Roses: Parkinson includes this soothing preparation. Rose petals are simmered in honey, then strained and stored. Used for ulcers, throat comfort, or cooling electuaries.

🍇 Flowers in Vinegar

• Violet Vinegar: Found in The Good Huswifes Jewell. Violets steeped in wine vinegar with herbs, used for dressing sallets (salads) and preserving greens.
• Marigold Vinegar: Cited in both Parkinson and the 1653 text. Fresh calendula petals steeped in warm vinegar and used in broths, sauces, or as a remedy “to comfort the heart.”

Further Reading: Of March Violets

Explore the poetic and symbolic legacy of violets in “Of March Violets”, a companion piece reflecting on the fragrance, folklore, and meaning of this beloved bloom in medieval and modern imagination.

Whether you're reconstructing a medieval banquet or adding floral flair to a modern meal, edible flowers are a fragrant and flavorful way to connect with the past. These recipes remind us that beauty and sustenance were deeply intertwined in historical cuisine—and they invite us to continue that legacy in our own kitchens today.

⚠️ Reminder: Always use organically grown or culinary-grade flowers. Never consume flowers from florists or treated ornamental plants.

References & Resources

• Parkinson, John. Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (1629). A foundational English gardening text blending botanical, culinary, and medicinal knowledge. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• A Book of Fruits & Flowers (1653). A 17th-century household manual offering flower-based recipes for food, drink, and medicine. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• Landrum, Grace Warren. A Plain Plantain: A Book of Herbal Lore (1911). A lyrical exploration of flower symbolism, history, and folklore. Read on Project Gutenberg.
• Dawson, Thomas. The Good Huswifes Jewell (1596). A Tudor-era cookbook that includes floral syrups, vinegars, and herbal remedies. Read on Internet Archive.
• British Museum Blog. “How to Cook a Medieval Feast: 11 Recipes from the Middle Ages.” britishmuseum.org
• Recipes Project Blog. “Distilling Violets: Women's Recipes and Domestic Knowledge.” recipes.hypotheses.org
• Wikipedia. “Four Thieves Vinegar.” Historical herbal vinegar recipe linked to plague lore. en.wikipedia.org
• MedievalCookery.com. Offers searchable transcriptions of period cookbooks. medievalcookery.com
• Of March Violets. A historical and poetic exploration of violets, including a period recipe for Oil of Violets.
• The Past is a Foreign Pantry. A blog exploring medieval and early modern foodways. thepastisaforeignpantry.com

Roman Smoked Pork with Must Cakes – Petaso paro Mustacei

Petaso paro Mustacei – Smoked Pork with Sweet Wine Cakes

Course: Mensa Prima (First Course)
Origin: Ancient Rome
Served: Warm
Event: Push for Pennsic 2004 – Early Roman Feast

Historical Background

Petaso, or pork, was widely enjoyed in Ancient Rome. In this dish, it is sweetened with honey and figs and served alongside mustacei—wine cakes traditionally baked atop bay leaves for flavor. These cakes were often served at celebrations, symbolizing hospitality and indulgence. Recipes for mustacei appear in Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura, one of the oldest surviving Latin texts.

Did You Know?
Mustaceum comes from "mustum"—fresh grape must—used to flavor celebratory cakes in Roman weddings and feasts.

Modern Interpretation

Ingredients – Pork & Broth

• 2 pounds smoked ham
• 2 ½ cups pearl barley
• 10 dried figs
• 1 celery stalk
• 10 peppercorns
• 1 cup honey

Instructions

1. Soak ham overnight. Discard water.
2. In a pot, cover ham with fresh water. Add barley, figs, celery, peppercorns, and ½ cup honey.
3. Boil, skim, and simmer for 1 hour. Remove meat and reserve broth. Cool, then glaze with remaining ½ cup honey.

Sweet Wine Sauce

• 1 ¼ cups red wine
• 1 ¼ cups raisin wine (or substitute sweet red wine)
• ½ tsp ground black pepper

1. Simmer wines and pepper until reduced slightly. Serve as sauce with pork.

Sweet Wine Cakes (Mustacei)

• 2 cups flour
• 2 tbsp lard
• 2 oz grated cheese
• 1 tsp ground cumin
• 1 tsp aniseed
• 3–4 tbsp red wine
• Bay leaves
• ½ tsp dried yeast

1. Rub lard into flour. Mix in cheese, cumin, and aniseed.
2. Dissolve yeast in wine with bay leaf. Remove bay leaf and mix into flour.
3. Knead dough, divide into 8, shape into buns. Place on greased tray. Cover and let rise 1½ hrs.
4. Bake at 375°F for 25–30 minutes until golden.

Serving Suggestions

Slice glazed pork and serve with the wine reduction sauce and a warm mustaceum. Ideal paired with olives or soft cheese for a full Roman plate.

Sources

• Cato the Elder – De Agri Cultura: LacusCurtius
• On Roman cakes: CooksInfo – Mustaceum
• Additional Texts: Apicius via Gutenberg

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🍷 Want more recipes from this feast?

Explore the other dishes served at the Early Roman Feast – Push for Pennsic, July 9–11, 2004:

• Cucumeres (Braised Cucumber)
• Lucanicae (Grilled Sausages)
• Epityrum (Olives)
• Moretum (Herbed Cheese Spread)
• Piadina (Flatbread)
• Erebinthoi Knakosymmigeis (Chickpeas with Saffron)
• Krambe (Roman Cabbage)
• Itria (Sesame Seed Biscuit)
• Basyniai (Fig and Walnut Cakes)